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Cross-linking in soy proteins is hypothesised to have an impact on the texture of tofu. In vitro incubation showed soy proteins and its two fractions, glycinin and β-conglycinin, were cross-linked using glutaraldehyde, formaldehyde, glyceraldehyde and transglutaminase (TGA). Increasing concentration of these carbonyl compounds and TGA, and temperature of the carbonyl compounds treatment, increased the reactivity of cross-linking. Glutaraldehyde was the most reactive in forming aggregated proteins, followed by formaldehyde and glyceraldehyde. Both carbonyl moieties of glutaraldehyde are believed to be essential for the rapid cross-linking reaction. In the unfractionated soy proteins, β-conglycinin had a higher reactivity than glycinin. In in vitro incubation using TGA, soy proteins served as good substrates for TGA, in which β-conglycinin was more susceptible to TGA than glycinin in the unfractionated soy proteins. The addition of TGA, and 1 and 2 mM glutaraldehyde prior to soymilk boiling in situ resulted in a small number of cross-linked proteins, which correspond to an increase in fracture force. The addition of glutaraldehyde after soymilk boiling resulted in a slight decrease in fracture force compared to the control. At higher concentrations of glutaraldehyde (15 and 30 mM), soy proteins were mostly cross-linked, regardless of addition before or after soymilk boiling. Highly cross-linked proteins resulted in a significant decrease in the fracture force. For TGA treatment, the fracture force was increased with increasing TGA concentration from 1000 to 5000 ppm, added either before or after soymilk boiling. However, the TGA treatment showed only a small quantity of cross-linking. It is hypothesised that TGA hydrolysed glutamine of proteins to glutamate and changed the functional properties of proteins. Upon examination of the microstructure, it was found that the TGA treatment resulted in a fine-stranded network, compact structure and less porosity. These characteristics resulted in a higher fracture force. In contrast, in the glutaraldehyde treatment, the network consisted of a higher porosity, loose network and diffuse structure, which gave lower fracture force. Thus, it appears that substrate modification to the structure of the soy proteins may have a greater impact than the number of cross-links. These findings are likely to have implications for production of soy products with a wide range of textures by manipulating the soy protein properties.

Thesis (M.S.)--University of Missouri-Columbia, 2007. / The entire dissertation/thesis text is included in the research.pdf file; the official abstract appears in the short.pdf file (which also appears in the research.pdf); a non-technical general description, or public abstract, appears in the public.pdf file. Title from title screen of research.pdf file (viewed on January 16, 2008) Includes bibliographical references.

Thesis (M.S.)--University of Missouri-Columbia, 2007. / The entire dissertation/thesis text is included in the research.pdf file; the official abstract appears in the short.pdf file (which also appears in the research.pdf); a non-technical general description, or public abstract, appears in the public.pdf file. Title from title screen of research.pdf file (viewed on April 16, 2008) Includes bibliographical references.

Thesis (Ph.D.). / Written for the Dept. of Bioresource Engineering. Title from title page of PDF (viewed 2009/06/11). Includes bibliographical references.

The entire thesis text is included in the research.pdf file; the official abstract appears in the short.pdf file; a non-technical public abstract appears in the public.pdf file. Title from PDF of title page (University of Missouri--Columbia, viewed on September 10, 2009). Thesis advisor: Joseph Parcell. Includes bibliographical references.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Ohio State University, 2006. / Title from first page of PDF file. Includes bibliographical references (p. 162-178).

Thesis (M.S.) University of Missouri-Columbia, 2006. / The entire dissertation/thesis text is included in the research.pdf file; the official abstract appears in the short.pdf file (which also appears in the research.pdf); a non-technical general description, or public abstract, appears in the public.pdf file. Title from title screen of research.pdf file (viewed on August 21, 2007) Includes bibliographical references.

Dissertação composta por 03 artigos científicos. / A microencapsulação é uma tecnologia de revestimento de partículas, pela qual são obtidas pequenas cápsulas. Dentre os métodos de microencapsulação, o spray drying destaca-se por ser uma técnica simples e barata, que tem sido estudada com o objetivo de melhorar a sobrevivência de microrganismos probióticos incorporados em alimentos. Entretanto, a proteção oferecida pelo método de spray drying às células probióticas depende, dentre outros fatores, do material empregado na formação das microcápsulas, que deve manter o microrganismo ativo até o momento do consumo, protegendo-o de condições hostis de produção e estocagem do alimento, bem como durante sua passagem pelo trato digestório. As proteínas vegetais, em especial soja, ervilha, milho, trigo e girassol tem ganhado destaque por serem materiais renováveis e de baixo custo, além de possuírem diversas propriedades funcionais, sendo consideradas potencialmente adequadas para o uso como material de parede na microencapsulação de componentes ativos. As proteínas de soja têm se destacado na indústria de alimentos como o melhor substituto para proteínas de origem animal, devido às suas propriedades funcionais e ao seu alto valor nutricional. O extrato de soja é composto em maior proporção por proteínas e carboidratos, contendo também oligossacarídeos que podem atuar como prebióticos no estímulo do crescimento de microrganismos. Além da composição do material de parede, as condições de processo nas quais ocorre a microencapsulação exercem importante influência sobre a viabilidade da bactéria encapsulada. Diante disso, o estudo objetivou a otimização da microencapsulação por spray drying de L. acidophilus La-5, utilizando extrato de soja e maltodextrina como agentes encapsulantes, por meio da seleção das condições ótimas de temperatura de entrada do ar de secagem, razão maltodextrina/extrato de soja na composição do material de parede e vazão de alimentação do sistema, a fim de maximizar a sobrevivência do microrganismo à microencapsulação, bem como caracterizar as microcápsulas obtidas e acompanhar a viabilidade celular durante armazenamento refrigerado. Os efeitos das variáveis sobre a sobrevivência do microrganismo foram estudados por meio da aplicação de planejamento experimental do tipo Delineamento Composto Central Rotacional (DCCR). As microcápsulas foram submetidas às análises de tamanho e morfologia, umidade, atividade de água, higroscopicidade e Espectrometria na Região do Infravermelho por Transformada de Fourier (FTIR). O comportamento térmico das partículas foi avaliado por Calorimetria Diferencial de Varredura (DSC) e Termogravimetria (TG). O estudo da estabilidade das microcápsulas compreendeu a enumeração de células viáveis de L. acidophilus e a determinação da atividade de água das amostras durante 45 dias de armazenamento a 4ºC. O rendimento máximo da microencapsulação foi de 83% e as condições de processo que permitiram maior viabilidade celular corresponderam à temperatura de entrada de ar de 87ºC, razão maltodextrina/extrato de soja de 2:3 (m:m) e vazão de alimentação de 0,54 L.h-1. O modelo obtido com aplicação do DCCR foi validado experimentalmente. As variáveis empregadas no planejamento experimental tiveram efeito significativo sobre o rendimento da microencapsulação e sobre as características físicas do pó obtido. Proporções de extrato de soja superiores às de maltodextrina na composição do material de parede foram favoráveis à sobrevivência da cultura. Por outro lado, temperaturas de entrada de ar e vazões de alimentação elevadas diminuíram o rendimento da microencapsulação. A temperatura do ar de secagem e a vazão também reduziram a atividade de água e a umidade das microcápsulas, enquanto a maltodextrina melhorou as propriedades higroscópicas das partículas. As microcápsulas apresentaram diâmetro médio entre 4,97 μm e 8,82 μm, formato arredondado e superfície irregular com presença de concavidades e achatamentos, caraterísticas comuns a produtos secos por spray drying. Por meio das análises de DSC, TG e FTIR verificou-se uma possível interação entre os agentes encapsulantes e as células de L. acidophilus. As partículas foram termicamente estáveis em temperaturas abaixo de 100ºC e os resultados sugeriram que as microcápsulas podem proteger os microrganismos frente ao calor e a desidratação. Durante o período de armazenamento, a redução da viabilidade celular de L. acidophilus foi menor nas microcápsulas que continham maior proporção de extrato de soja na composição do material de parede. A atividade de água manteve-se dentro dos valores recomendados em todos os tratamentos até o trigésimo dia de estocagem. Ao final do período de estocagem, as microcápsulas produzidas nas condições ótimas apontadas pelo planejamento experimental apresentaram atividade de água apropriada e viabilidade celular elevada, indicando que o extrato de soja, associado à maltodextrina, é um material de parede eficiente na manutenção da viabilidade de L. acidophilus e um potencial agente encapsulante para o desenvolvimento de microcápsulas de probióticos com alta estabilidade. / Microencapsulation is a particle coating technology, whereby smaller capsules are obtained. Among the microencapsulation methods, the spray drying is distinguished by being simple and inexpensive technique, that has been studied with the aim of improving the survival of probiotic microorganisms incorporated into foods. However, the protection offered by spray drying to the probiotic cells depends, among other factors, on the material used in the formation of microcapsules, which should keep the active microorganism until the time of consumption, protecting it from hostile conditions of production and storage of food, and during their passage through the digestive tract. Vegetable proteins, especially soy, pea, maize, wheat and sunflower has gained prominence because they are low-cost and renewable materials, in addition to having different functional properties are considered potentially suitable for use as wall material in the microencapsulation of active compounds . Soy proteins have been prominent in the food industry as the best substitute for animal protein due to its functional properties and its high nutritional value. The soybean extract powder is composed in major proportion of protein and carbohydrates, also containing oligosaccharides that may act as prebiotic stimulation of the growth of microorganisms. Besides the wall material composition, process conditions under which the microencapsulation happens have an important influence on the viability of encapsulated bacteria. Thus, the study aimed to optimize the microencapsulation by spray drying of L. acidophilus La-5, using soybean extract powder and maltodextrin as encapsulating agents, by selecting the optimal conditions of drying air inlet temperature, maltodextrin/soybean extract powder ratio in the composition of the wall material and system feed flow, in order to maximize the microorganism survival to the microencapsulation, as well as characterize the microcapsules and monitor cell viability during storage. The effects of the variables on the survival of the microorganism were studied through the application of experimental design, Central Composite Rotatable Design (CCRD). The microcapsules were submitted to analysis of size and morphology, moisture content, water activity, hygroscopicity and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR). The thermal behavior of the particles was evaluated by Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) and Thermogravimetry (TG). The study of the microcapsules stability included the enumeration of viable cells of L. acidophilus and determining the water activity of the samples for 45 days storage at 4 ° C.The maximum yield of the microencapsulation was 83% and the process conditions that allow higher cell viability corresponded to 87ºC air inlet temperature, maltodextrin/soy extract powder ratio 0.67 (w.w-1) and feed flow rate of 0.54 L.hr-1. The adequacy of the model obtained through the CCRD was validated experimentally. The variables used in the experimental design had a significant effect on the yield microencapsulation and on the physical characteristics of powder obtained. Soy extract ratios superior to maltodextrin in the wall material composition were favorable to the survival of the culture. On the other hand, high air inlet temperatures and feed flow rate decreased the yield of microencapsulation. The drying air temperature and the feed flow rate also reduced water activity and moisture of the microcapsules, while the maltodextrin improved the hygroscopic properties of the particles. The microcapsules had a mean diameter of 4.97 μm and 8.82 μm, rounded shape and irregular surface with presence of concavities and flattening, common characteristics of dried products by spray drying. Through the DSC, TG and FTIR analyzes it was observed a possible interaction between the agents encapsulating and the cells of L. acidophilus. The particles are thermally stable at temperatures below 100ºC and the results suggested that microcapsules can protect microorganisms against heat and dehydration. During the storage period, the reduction in cellular viability of L. acidophilus was lower in microcapsules containing a higher proportion of soybean extract in the composition of the wall material. The water activity was within the recommended values in all treatments until the thirtieth day of storage. At the end of the storage period, the microcapsules produced in optimal conditions indicated by the experimental design showed appropriate water activity and high cell viability, indicating that soybean extract, combined with maltodextrin is an effective wall material in keeping the viability of L. acidophilus and a potential encapsulating agent for the development of probiotics microcapsules with high stability. / 5000-01-01

The concentrated protein fractions of soyabeans, known as soya protein isolate, was produced by three different methods from the same raw material namely defatted soya flakes. Extraction of the soluble fraction of the raw material is common to all three methods. A study was therefore undertaken to optimise the extraction process conditions in terms of time, temperature, pH, extraction time, extraction volume and raw material particle size, thereby maximising yields of soluble material. The three different methods, namely isoelectric precipitation, ultrafiltration and swollen gel technology were then used to separate the soluble and non-soluble protein fractions. Both the isoelectric and ultrafiltration methods gave good yields of finished product, with the ultrafiltration process giving the better overall yield, but the swollen gel method gave disappointing results and was not feasible in practice. Functional properties of the products from the isoelectric and ultrafiltration methods were compared and found to be broadly similar although different in certain respects from those of commercial soya isolates. Levels of the anti-nutritional factors trypsin inhibitor and phytate in products from the three processes were determined and the substantial differences observed in trypsin inhibitor levels were further investigated. Determination of lysinoalanine levels was also attempted but the results obtained were unsatisfactory. Amino acid composition and polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis were used to compare the chemical composition of products from the three processes. The comparative economics of the isoelectric and ultrafiltration processes for large scale production of soya protein isolates were evaluated, taking into account the comparative efficiencies of the two processes as determined during the study. It was established that, while the isoelectric process initially appears more economical, it may be possible to modify the ultrafiltration process in such a manner as to make it more economical than the isoelectric process. Overall figures however indicate that the manufacture of soya protein isolate in South Africa is not currently a viable economic proposition, due to high raw material costs. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, 1995.