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Após a desativação da disponibilidade seletiva, ocorrida em maio de 2000, a maior fonte de erro presente no sistema GPS passou a ser a refração ionosférica. Os seus efeitos provocam um avanço na fase de batimento da portadora e um atraso no código. Na região equatorial onde o Brasil está inserido, a refração ionosférica apresenta variações que decorrem de diversos fatores tais como: o ciclo solar, o movimento aparente do Sol, as estações do ano, o campo geomagnético, entre outras. Desta forma, a refração ionosférica é um fator limitante pois, degrada a determinação de posições, principalmente, se o usuário estiver utilizando um receptor de apenas uma freqüência. Para avaliar o efeito da refração ionosférica no Brasil, no período compreendido entre janeiro de 1997 a dezembro de 2001, foram utilizados dados coletados com receptores providos de duas freqüências e que integram a Rede Brasileira de Monitoramento Contínuo do Sistema GPS. Todos os dados foram preparados e inseridos em um programa científico de processamento das observáveis do sistema GPS. Devido à grande massa de dados foi necessário o desenvolvimento de um programa para verificar a integridade dos mesmos, converter as efemérides precisas e os dados para o formato de entrada do programa científico e preparar os arquivos de lote. Além das características apresentadas, este programa foi desenvolvido para automatizar o processo de cálculo do conteúdo total de elétrons. Ao final do processamento o programa exibe os parâmetros que representam a refração ionosférica ou seja, os valores calculados para o Conteúdo Total de Elétrons. Tais valores permitiram a criação de uma série histórica do comportamento da refração ionosférica abrangendo um intervalo de tempo que contempla um período em que o ciclo solar apresentava atividade mínima e um outro período em que o ciclo solar alcançou a máxima atividade. Estes dados indicam o comportamento da ionosfera para um período de cinco anos em uma das regiões do planeta que apresenta as maiores variações, comportamento este, que permitirá um melhor conhecimento da ionosfera e a melhoria ou desenvolvimento de modelos mais adequados. Foram gerados ainda, mapas da ionosfera que poderão auxiliar na melhoria da acurácia posicional. / Since the US president decided to turn off the selective availability (SA) one of the biggest error in the GPS system has been the ionosphere refraction. The refraction effect on GPS signals are: delay for the code and an advance for the phase. In the equatorial region, where Brazil is, the refraction presents the biggest variations that are caused by the solar cycle, the time of the day, the season, the geomagnetic field and many others phenomena. In this case, the ionosphere refraction is a limitation because it increases the degradation of the position, specially if the user is using a single frequency receiver. To evaluate the ionospheric effects in Brazil, between January 1997 and December 2001, data from the Brazilian Continuous GPS Monitoring Network were used, provided by double frequency GPS receivers. All data were prepared and used by a scientific software to process the GPS observations. The volume of data was so big that it was necessary to write a software to manage the data integrity, to transform the precise ephemeris and the observations to scientific program format and to create batch files. Also, the program was used to process the data and to compute the total electron content automatically. At the end of the process, the software shows the TEC parameters. These parameters were used to create a historical series of the ionosphere refraction in Brazil. This series represents a period of minimal solar cycle, 1997, and a maximum period of the solar cycle, 2000 / 2001 in one of the most active regions of the planet. This series will improve the knowledge on the ionosphere and will allow to improve models or create new ones. Ionospheric maps that can be used to improve the positional accuracy, were also generated.

Após a desativação da disponibilidade seletiva, ocorrida em maio de 2000, a maior fonte de erro presente no sistema GPS passou a ser a refração ionosférica. Os seus efeitos provocam um avanço na fase de batimento da portadora e um atraso no código. Na região equatorial onde o Brasil está inserido, a refração ionosférica apresenta variações que decorrem de diversos fatores tais como: o ciclo solar, o movimento aparente do Sol, as estações do ano, o campo geomagnético, entre outras. Desta forma, a refração ionosférica é um fator limitante pois, degrada a determinação de posições, principalmente, se o usuário estiver utilizando um receptor de apenas uma freqüência. Para avaliar o efeito da refração ionosférica no Brasil, no período compreendido entre janeiro de 1997 a dezembro de 2001, foram utilizados dados coletados com receptores providos de duas freqüências e que integram a Rede Brasileira de Monitoramento Contínuo do Sistema GPS. Todos os dados foram preparados e inseridos em um programa científico de processamento das observáveis do sistema GPS. Devido à grande massa de dados foi necessário o desenvolvimento de um programa para verificar a integridade dos mesmos, converter as efemérides precisas e os dados para o formato de entrada do programa científico e preparar os arquivos de lote. Além das características apresentadas, este programa foi desenvolvido para automatizar o processo de cálculo do conteúdo total de elétrons. Ao final do processamento o programa exibe os parâmetros que representam a refração ionosférica ou seja, os valores calculados para o Conteúdo Total de Elétrons. Tais valores permitiram a criação de uma série histórica do comportamento da refração ionosférica abrangendo um intervalo de tempo que contempla um período em que o ciclo solar apresentava atividade mínima e um outro período em que o ciclo solar alcançou a máxima atividade. Estes dados indicam o comportamento da ionosfera para um período de cinco anos em uma das regiões do planeta que apresenta as maiores variações, comportamento este, que permitirá um melhor conhecimento da ionosfera e a melhoria ou desenvolvimento de modelos mais adequados. Foram gerados ainda, mapas da ionosfera que poderão auxiliar na melhoria da acurácia posicional. / Since the US president decided to turn off the selective availability (SA) one of the biggest error in the GPS system has been the ionosphere refraction. The refraction effect on GPS signals are: delay for the code and an advance for the phase. In the equatorial region, where Brazil is, the refraction presents the biggest variations that are caused by the solar cycle, the time of the day, the season, the geomagnetic field and many others phenomena. In this case, the ionosphere refraction is a limitation because it increases the degradation of the position, specially if the user is using a single frequency receiver. To evaluate the ionospheric effects in Brazil, between January 1997 and December 2001, data from the Brazilian Continuous GPS Monitoring Network were used, provided by double frequency GPS receivers. All data were prepared and used by a scientific software to process the GPS observations. The volume of data was so big that it was necessary to write a software to manage the data integrity, to transform the precise ephemeris and the observations to scientific program format and to create batch files. Also, the program was used to process the data and to compute the total electron content automatically. At the end of the process, the software shows the TEC parameters. These parameters were used to create a historical series of the ionosphere refraction in Brazil. This series represents a period of minimal solar cycle, 1997, and a maximum period of the solar cycle, 2000 / 2001 in one of the most active regions of the planet. This series will improve the knowledge on the ionosphere and will allow to improve models or create new ones. Ionospheric maps that can be used to improve the positional accuracy, were also generated.

Dentre as técnicas de posicionamento utilizando os sistemas de navegação por satélite globais (GNSS - Global Navigation Satellite Systems), merece destaque a que utiliza dados de uma rede de estações GNSS para gerar estações de referência virtuais. Desde que as estações da rede não estejam separadas por mais de 100 km e o receptor do usuário esteja dentro da região interna à rede de referência, esta técnica de posicionamento pode proporcionar posicionamento com precisão melhor que 10 cm a usuários de receptores de uma frequência. No entanto, o posicionamento em tempo-real pode ser inviabilizado caso ocorra problema de comunicação com as estações da rede de referência. Tendo em vista a relação do conteúdo total de elétrons (TEC - Total Electron Content) com o atraso ionosférico de primeira ordem, esta pesquisa apresenta uma forma de se prever 72 horas do TEC na direção vertical (VTEC - Vertical Total Electron Content) regionalmente com a arquitetura de redes neurais artificiais (RNA) denominada perceptrons de múltiplas camadas (MLP MultiLayer Perceptrons). A metodologia de previsão do VTEC proposta foi empregada na geração de estações de referência virtuais, onde arquivos de previsão do atraso troposférico zenital, produzidos pelo Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais (INPE), foram utilizados para considerar o atraso provocado pela atmosfera neutra e as efemérides preditas pelo serviço internacional do GNSS (IGS - International GNSS Service) foram empregadas para calcular a posição dos satélites. As RNA foram treinadas e avaliadas com dados de VTEC extraídos dos mapas da ionosfera globais (GIM - Global Ionospheric Map) produzidos pelo IGS e dos arquivos produzidos com o software Mod_Ion, ambos no formato IONEX (IONosphere Map EXchange), mostrando que o VTEC pode ser previsto por 72 horas com diferença média quadrática (RMS Root Mean Square) que varia de 1,2 unidades de TEC (TECU - TEC Units) a 12,5 TECU, em baixa e alta atividade solar, respectivamente. Dezoito linhas de base, localizadas no oeste do Estado de São Paulo, foram calculadas utilizando estações de referência virtuais e estações de referência reais, verificando-se que o posicionamento relativo tridimensional empregando a metodologia proposta apresentou RMS de aproximadamente 46 cm. Quando avaliada no posicionamento absoluto preciso (PPP Precise Point Positioning), o RMS relacionado com o posicionamento tridimensional foi de 26 cm. / The positioning technique that uses data from a network of GNSS reference stations to generate virtual reference stations should be detached among the Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) positioning techniques. Since the inter reference station distances are up to 100 km and the user receiver is within the internal region of the network, this technique can provide single frequency receiver users positioning with better accuracy than 10 cm. However, real-time positioning can be impracticable if communication breakdown involving such reference stations occurs. Given the relation between the Total Electron Content (TEC) and the first-order ionospheric delay, this research presents a way to predict 72 hours of vertical TEC (VTEC) regionally using the Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) architecture called MultiLayer Perceptorns (MLP). The proposed VTEC prediction methodology was employed in the generation of virtual reference stations, where files of prediction of zenithal tropospheric delay, produced by the National Institute For Space Research (INPE Instituto de Pesquisas Espaciais), were used to take the neutral atmospheric delay into account and the precise ephemeris predicted by the GNSS International Service (GNSS) were employed to compute satellites positioning. ANN were trained and assessed using VTEC data from the Global Ionospheric Maps (GIM) produced by IGS and the files produced by Mod_Ion software, both in IONEX (IONosphere Map EXchange) format, showed VTEC can be predicted for 72 hours with Root Mean Square difference (RMS) of about 1.2 TEC units (TECU) and 12.5 TECU, respectively, in low solar activity and high solar activity. Eighteen baselines, in the west region of Sao Paulo State, were computed using virtual reference stations and real reference stations, verifying that the three-dimensional relative positioning using the proposed methodology showed RMS of 46 cm. When assessed by precise point positioning (PPP), the three-dimensional RMS positioning was of 26 cm.

The rift of Corinth (Greece) has been long identified as a site of major importance in Europe due to its intense tectonic activity. It is one of the world’s most rapidly extending continental regions and it has one of the highest seismicity rates in the Euro-Mediterranean region. The GPS studies conducted since 1990 indicate a north–south extension rate across the rift of ~1.5 cm year-1 around its western termination. Geological evidences show that the south coast of the rift is uplifting whereas the north part is subsiding. The western termination of the rift in the Patras broader area, with many active faults lying very close and inside the city of Patras, presents major scientific and socio-economic importance. Recent seismicity has affected this end of the rift with the Movri (Achaia) earthquake in june 2008 and a seismic swarm around Efpalio (Fokida) in January 2010. Additionally the presence of a plurality of geophysical phenomena and morphological features renders this area and the Gulf of Corinth generally, as natural laboratory, a place of international initiatives as the Corinth Rift Laboratory and a case study for the EO Supersites initiative. Seismic and geodetic ground measurements from permanent networks (since 2000) and measuring campaigns (since 1990) have been (and are) performed. Moreover dense SAR data are available since 1992 and the ERS1 mission. Motivated by the lack of precise and extended mapping of the vertical deformation of the area and by the limitations of the GPS network (in terms of density of points) we investigate, model and interpret a large set of SAR interferometry data completed by the GPS data. The SAR interferometry data are very powerful for measuring vertical motions, for mapping localized deformations across faults or other features and for mapping and modeling the co-seismic deformation produced by earthquakes. We processed ascending and ascending acquisitions of ASAR/ENVISAT in the period between 2002-2010, to produce Persistent Scatterrers and Small Baseline Subsets deformation rates maps. These products have been combined together but also constrained with a number of GPS observations in order to extract the precise Up-Down and East-West deformation components field. The methodology chain performed globally well over the area (despite the vegetation cover and slopes) and provides accurate and robust results in many areas. We verified the agreement between GPS and the InSAR deformation field rates. We also compared them with remote sensing and ground observations of independent studies. We focused in specific case studies and presented the deformation rates along cross sections inside the city of Patras, around the Rion-Antirion bridge, around the urban areas of Psathopyrgos, Aigion, Sellianitika, Nafpaktos, Ακratas, the island of Trizonia, and the river deltas of Psathopyrgos, Sellianitika, Aigion, Mornos, Marathias and Akrata. Significant ground deformation is observed within the city of Patras itself, due not only to urban subsidence often seen elsewhere, but also to the motion of shallow structures likely to be induced by deep tectonic movements at the junction of the right lateral strike-slip fault linked to the Movri and penetrating inland between Rio and Patras (trans-tensional fault of Rio Patras), and the Psathopirgos normal fault at the entrance of the Corinth Rift. The Rio-Patras fault is a transition, oblique, structure, connecting the strike-slip zone to the south and the extentional area to the east. The Aigion fault appears very active with uplift rate of about 2mm/an, the highest rate across the Corinth Rift in the sample period, this uprising damping in the three kilometers separating this fault from the West Helike fault to the south. The observed discontinuities of the deformation field are not always correlated with seismic activity at the same place in the sampled period. The Temeni-Valimitika delta, east of Aigion, is the only delta of the area not subsiding (at least at its bigger part). We think that this is because it is located on the footwall of the Aigion fault with the delta compaction/subsidence balanced by the tectonic uplift. All the other deltas are subsiding due to the compaction of their sediments, and in the big ones it is possible to observe a linear increasing rate as approaching their coastal borders. The 2008 and 2010 seismic events occurred in the study area are modeled by inversion of their sources parameters using a model of dislocation in an homogenous elastic half-space constrained by the seismic, the GPS and the SAR interferometry data. At the broad scale, most of our studied tectonic features are pieces of a (diffuse) triple junction between micro-plates at the boundary between the rift of Corinth to the east and the termination of the Hellenic arc to the west. We briefly investigated and discuss the Trikonida and Aitoliko valley deformation field in the northwest of the triple junction area. Finally for the sake of completeness and in order to assess the capabilities of the space geodesy we presented some inferred discontinuities occurred by landslides and some by unclear origin and requiring further investigations. / Η ρηξιγενής ζώνη της Κορίνθου (Ελλάδα) έχει από καιρό αναγνωριστεί ως μια περιοχή μείζονος σημασίας στην Ευρώπη, λόγω της έντονης τεκτονικής της δραστηριότητας. Είναι μία από τις πιο ταχέως εφελκούμενες ηπειρωτικές περιοχές στον κόσμο και παρουσιάζει ένα από τους υψηλότερους ρυθμούς σεισμικότητας στον Ευρω-μεσογειακό χώρο. Μελέτες GPS που διεξάγονται από το 1990 εκτιμούν το ρυθμό εφελκυσμού περί τα 1.5 εκατοστά ανά έτος γύρω στο δυτικό πέρας του. Γεωλογικές μελέτες δείχνουν ότι η νότια ακτή του ανυψώνεται, ενώ η βόρεια υποχωρεί. Το δυτικό πέρας της ρηξιγενής ζώνης στην ευρύτερη περιοχή της Πάτρας, με πολλά ενεργά ρήγματα που βρίσκονται πολύ κοντά και μέσα στην πόλη, παρουσιάζει σημαντικές επιστημονικές και κοινωνικο-οικονομικές προεκτάσεις. H πρόσφατη σεισμικότητα έχει εκδηλωθεί σε αυτή τη περιοχή με τον σεισμό της Μόβρης (Αχαΐα) τον Ιούνιου του 2008 και της σεισμικής ακολουθίας κοντά στο Ευπάλιο (Φωκίδα) τον Ιανουάριο του 2010. Επιπλέον, η παρουσία ενός πλήθους γεωφυσικών φαινομένων και γεωμορφολογικών χαρακτηριστικών καθιστά την εν λόγω περιοχή, αλλά και τον Κορινθιακό Κόλπο εν γένει, ένα φυσικό εργαστήριο, μια περιοχή μελέτης για διεθνείς πρωτοβουλίες, όπως το Corinth Rift Laboratory και μια περιπτωσιολογική μελέτη της πρωτοβουλίας ‘EO Supersites’. Σεισμικές και γεωδαιτικές επιτόπιες παρατηρήσεις, από μόνιμα δίκτυα (από το 2000), και δειγματοληπτικές μετρήσεις (από το 1990), συνεχίζονται να διενεργούνται από το 2000 και 1990 αντίστοιχα. Επιπλέον πυκνές λήψεις δεδομένων SAR είναι διαθέσιμες από το 1992 από την αποστολή του ERS-1. Παρακινούμενοι από την έλλειψη μιας λεπτομερούς, ακριβούς και εκτεταμένης χαρτογράφησης της κάθετης παραμόρφωσης στην περιοχή ενδιαφέροντος και τους περιορισμούς του δικτύου GPS (από την άποψη της πυκνότητας της δειγματοληψίας), ερευνούμε, μοντελοποιούμε και ερμηνεύουμε ένα μεγάλο σύνολο δεδομένων διαφορικής συμβολομετρίας SAR και μετρήσεων GPS. Τα δεδομένα διαφορικής συμβολομετρίας μπορούν να αξιοποιηθούν για την ακριβή μέτρηση κατακόρυφων μετακινήσεων, για τη χαρτογράφηση τοπικών παραμορφώσεων εκατέρωθεν ρηγμάτων ή άλλων σχηματισμών και για τη χαρτογράφηση και μοντελοποίηση της ενδο-σεισμικής παραμόρφωσης. Επεξεργαστήκαμε δεδομένα ανοδικής και καθοδικής τροχιάς του δέκτη ASAR / ENVISAT της περιόδου μεταξύ 2002-2010, για την παραγωγή χαρτών ρυθμού παραμόρφωσης Σταθερών Σκεδαστών (Persistent Scatterrers) και υποσύνολα μικρών χωρικών γραμμών βάσης (Small Baseline Subsets – SBAS). Τα προϊόντα συνδυάστηκαν κατάλληλα, αλλά και διορθώθηκαν από μια σειρά από παρατηρήσεις GPS, προκειμένου να εξαχθεί το ακριβές πεδίο παραμόρφωσης κατά την κατακόρυφη και κατά την διεύθυνση Ανατολής-Δύσης συνιστώσα. Η ακολουθούμενη μεθοδολογία λειτούργησε καλά σε ευρεία κλίμακα στην περιοχή ενδιαφέροντος (παρά την κάλυψη της βλάστησης και το έντονο ανάγλυφο) και παρείχε ακριβείς και αξιόπιστες εκτιμήσεις σε πολλές επί μέρους περιοχές. Επαληθεύσαμε τη συμφωνία μεταξύ των πεδίων παραμόρφωσης των παρατηρήσεων GPS και συμβολομετρίας. Επίσης τα συγκρίναμε με δεδομένα τηλεπισκόπησης και επίγειες παρατηρήσεις από ανεξάρτητες μελέτες. Εστιάσαμε σε συγκεκριμένες περιπτωσιολογικές μελέτες και παρουσιάσαμε τους ρυθμούς παραμόρφωσης μαζί με διατομές μέσα στην πόλη της Πάτρας, γύρω από τη γέφυρα Ρίου-Αντιρρίου, γύρω από τις αστικές περιοχές του Ψαθόπυργου, Αίγιου, Σελλιανίτικων, Ναυπάκτου, Ακράτας, νήσου Τριζονίων, και τα ποτάμια δέλτα του Ψαθόπυργου, Σελλιανίτικων, Αιγίου, Μόρνου, Μαραθιά και Ακράτας. Σημαντική παραμόρφωση του εδάφους παρατηρείται μέσα στην πόλη της Πάτρας, οφειλόμενη όχι μόνο στην αστική καθίζηση (όπως συμβαίνει συχνά), αλλά και στην μετακίνηση των ρηχών δομών που ενδέχεται να προκαλούνται από βαθιές τεκτονικές μετακινήσεις στην επαφή του δεξιόστροφου ρήγματος πλευρικής ολίσθησης που συνδέεται με τον σεισμό της Μόβρης. Το τελευταίο διεισδύει στη ξηρά και συνδέεται μεταξύ Ρίου και Πάτρας (ρήγμα πλάγιας ολίσθησης) και στη συνέχεια με το κανονικό ρήγμα του Ψαθόπυργου στην είσοδο της ρηξιγενής ζώνης της Κορίνθου. Το ρήγμα Ρίου-Πάτρας αποτελεί μια ζώνη μετάβασης, συνδέοντας την ζώνη πλευρικής ολίσθησης στο Νότο με τις ρηξιγενείς δομές εφελκυσμού στην Ανατολή. Το ρήγμα του Αιγίου παρουσιάζει υψηλή ενεργητικότητα με ρυθμό ανύψωσης περί τα 2 χιλιοστά ανά έτος, ο υψηλότερος στην ρηξιγενή ζώνη της Κορίνθου κατά την περίοδο δειγματοληψίας, ο οποίος αποσβένει στα τρία χιλιόμετρα που χωρίζουν αυτό το ρήγμα με το Δυτικό τμήμα του ρήγματος της Ελίκης στο νότο. Οι παρατηρούμενες ασυνέχειες του πεδίου παραμόρφωσης δεν σχετίζονται πάντα με τη σεισμική δραστηριότητα κατά την περίοδο της μελέτης. Το δέλτα της Τέμενης-Βαλιμίτικων, ανατολικά του Αιγίου, είναι το μόνο δέλτα της περιοχής που δεν υποχωρεί (τουλάχιστον κατά τη μεγαλύτερη έκτασή του). Πιστεύουμε ότι αυτό οφείλεται στο ότι βρίσκεται στο πόδα του ρήγματος του Αιγίου με την συμπίεση/καθίζηση του δέλτα να εξισώνεται με την τεκτονική ανύψωση. Όλα τα άλλα δέλτα υποχωρούν λόγω της συμπίεσης των ιζημάτων τους, και στα μεγαλύτερα είναι δυνατόν να παρατηρηθεί ένας γραμμικώς αυξανόμενος ρυθμός παραμόρφωσης καθώς προσεγγίζουμε το προδέλτα του. Τα σεισμικά γεγονότα του 2008 και 2010 που έλαβαν χώρα στην περιοχή μελέτης μοντελοποιήθηκαν με αναστροφή των παραμέτρων της πηγής παραμόρφωσής τους, χρησιμοποιώντας ένα μοντέλο της μετατόπισης σε ένα ομογενές ελαστικό ημίχωρικό μέσο με χρήση σεισμικών, GPS και συμβολομετρικών δεδομένων. Σε ευρεία κλίμακα, οι περισσότερες υπό μελέτη τεκτονικές δομές αποτελούν τμήματα μιας (διάχυτης) τριπλής επαφής μεταξύ των μικρο-πλακών στο όριο ανάμεσα στη ρηξιγενή ζώνη της Κορίνθου στα Ανατολικά και στον τερματισμό του Ελληνικού τόξου προς τα δυτικά. Ερευνήσαμε συνοπτικά και συζητήσαμε το πεδίο παραμόρφωσης της λίμνης Τριχωνίδας και της κοιλάδας του Αιτολικού στα βορειοδυτικά της περιοχής της τριπλής επαφής. Τέλος, χάρη πληρότητας και για την αξιολόγηση των δυνατοτήτων της διαστημικής γεωδαισίας παρουσιάσαμε μερικές ασυνέχειες οι οποίες άλλες προκλήθηκαν από κατολισθήσεις και άλλες με ασαφή προέλευση οι οποίες χρήζουν περαιτέρω έρευνας.

Dentre as técnicas de posicionamento utilizando os sistemas de navegação por satélite globais (GNSS - Global Navigation Satellite Systems), merece destaque a que utiliza dados de uma rede de estações GNSS para gerar estações de referência virtuais. Desde que as estações da rede não estejam separadas por mais de 100 km e o receptor do usuário esteja dentro da região interna à rede de referência, esta técnica de posicionamento pode proporcionar posicionamento com precisão melhor que 10 cm a usuários de receptores de uma frequência. No entanto, o posicionamento em tempo-real pode ser inviabilizado caso ocorra problema de comunicação com as estações da rede de referência. Tendo em vista a relação do conteúdo total de elétrons (TEC - Total Electron Content) com o atraso ionosférico de primeira ordem, esta pesquisa apresenta uma forma de se prever 72 horas do TEC na direção vertical (VTEC - Vertical Total Electron Content) regionalmente com a arquitetura de redes neurais artificiais (RNA) denominada perceptrons de múltiplas camadas (MLP MultiLayer Perceptrons). A metodologia de previsão do VTEC proposta foi empregada na geração de estações de referência virtuais, onde arquivos de previsão do atraso troposférico zenital, produzidos pelo Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais (INPE), foram utilizados para considerar o atraso provocado pela atmosfera neutra e as efemérides preditas pelo serviço internacional do GNSS (IGS - International GNSS Service) foram empregadas para calcular a posição dos satélites. As RNA foram treinadas e avaliadas com dados de VTEC extraídos dos mapas da ionosfera globais (GIM - Global Ionospheric Map) produzidos pelo IGS e dos arquivos produzidos com o software Mod_Ion, ambos no formato IONEX (IONosphere Map EXchange), mostrando que o VTEC pode ser previsto por 72 horas com diferença média quadrática (RMS Root Mean Square) que varia de 1,2 unidades de TEC (TECU - TEC Units) a 12,5 TECU, em baixa e alta atividade solar, respectivamente. Dezoito linhas de base, localizadas no oeste do Estado de São Paulo, foram calculadas utilizando estações de referência virtuais e estações de referência reais, verificando-se que o posicionamento relativo tridimensional empregando a metodologia proposta apresentou RMS de aproximadamente 46 cm. Quando avaliada no posicionamento absoluto preciso (PPP Precise Point Positioning), o RMS relacionado com o posicionamento tridimensional foi de 26 cm. / The positioning technique that uses data from a network of GNSS reference stations to generate virtual reference stations should be detached among the Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) positioning techniques. Since the inter reference station distances are up to 100 km and the user receiver is within the internal region of the network, this technique can provide single frequency receiver users positioning with better accuracy than 10 cm. However, real-time positioning can be impracticable if communication breakdown involving such reference stations occurs. Given the relation between the Total Electron Content (TEC) and the first-order ionospheric delay, this research presents a way to predict 72 hours of vertical TEC (VTEC) regionally using the Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) architecture called MultiLayer Perceptorns (MLP). The proposed VTEC prediction methodology was employed in the generation of virtual reference stations, where files of prediction of zenithal tropospheric delay, produced by the National Institute For Space Research (INPE Instituto de Pesquisas Espaciais), were used to take the neutral atmospheric delay into account and the precise ephemeris predicted by the GNSS International Service (GNSS) were employed to compute satellites positioning. ANN were trained and assessed using VTEC data from the Global Ionospheric Maps (GIM) produced by IGS and the files produced by Mod_Ion software, both in IONEX (IONosphere Map EXchange) format, showed VTEC can be predicted for 72 hours with Root Mean Square difference (RMS) of about 1.2 TEC units (TECU) and 12.5 TECU, respectively, in low solar activity and high solar activity. Eighteen baselines, in the west region of Sao Paulo State, were computed using virtual reference stations and real reference stations, verifying that the three-dimensional relative positioning using the proposed methodology showed RMS of 46 cm. When assessed by precise point positioning (PPP), the three-dimensional RMS positioning was of 26 cm.

Grâce au développement des techniques spatiales (GNSS, DORIS, laser et le VLBI), la géodésie apporte quantité d’informations sur la forme de la Terre (sa géométrie et sa gravité), sa rotation et son orientation dans l’espace, aux échelles globales comme aux échelles régionales. L’étude des déformations de chaînes de montagne par GPS, des courants marins cartographiés par altimétrie satellitaire, des variations temporelles du champ de gravité, ainsi que l’établissement du repère de référence terrestre international, sont les exemples de l’apport de ces techniques à l’observation de la Terre et au changement global. Notre travail a pour but de faire un bilan des erreurs résiduelles de la géodésie spatiale, en séparant les causes des effets. Le but est de montrer comment les erreurs d’orbite se propagent d’abord dans la trajectoire, puis dans des produits globaux comme le repère de référence (via les mesures de poursuite de satellites) et la surface topographique (via les mesures altimétriques). Nous avons développé une approche analytique qui traite du transfert des erreurs d’origines géométrique et dynamique. En partant des équations du mouvement orbital, nous proposons une solution analytique d’ordre un du mouvement orbital circulaire, qui est appliquée pour propager les erreurs de modèle dynamique. Ensuite, les résultats sont transférés (ou projetés) sur plusieurs types de fonction de mesure : l’altimétrie, les mesures de distance et les mesures de vitesse radiale. L’originalité de ce travail tient pour beaucoup dans les méthodes purement analytiques qui ont été développées spécifiquement pour effectuer les analyses. / Thanks to the development of space techniques (GNSS, DORIS, laser and VLBI) geodesy provides amount of information to determine and to study the shape of the Earth (its geometry and its gravity), its rotation and orientation in space at global scales as well as at regional scales. The study of crustal deformations by using GPS, the ocean topography by satellite altimetry, the temporal variations of the gravity field (mass transports) as well as the construction and monitoring of the International Terrestrial Reference Frame (ITRF), are some examples of the contribution of these techniques to the Earth observation including the current global change. Our work aims to separate causes and consequences. We developed a dedicated approach in which different source of errors, of geometrical and dynamical natures, are treated by analytical expressions. Starting from the dynamical satellite equation of motion, we propose to integrate and propagate the model errors and then to project the results into different measurement functions: altimetry, tracking distances and radial velocities. It results in a complex but comprehensive way that enables the propagation of prediction errors into some general geodetic products as the terrestrial reference frame or the ocean surface topography. The originality of this work lies in the development of a purely analytical method for circular orbits, which has been used to propagate errors from dynamical models. In addition, the resulting orbit errors were projected at the measurement level in order to deduce the impacts on some global geodetic products.

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