The diploma thesis is focused on the study of the mechanism of plasticization of polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) in vivo, focusing mainly on methods of isolation native PHA granules and physical and chemical methods of initiation their phase transitions. The literature search prepared in this work deals with this microbial polyester and further focuses on individual methods of isolating PHA from bacterial cells. The main task of the experimental work was to optimize the isolation process of native PHA granules, as well as to design and test processes that initiate the PHA crystallization in isolated granules, as well as analytical procedures to correctly detect this phase transition. Isolation of PHA granules from Cupriavidus necator was performed by enzymes, centrifugation several times and sonication of the cells. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and an enzymatic method in which amorphous PHA is selectively degraded by PHA-depolymerase with turbidimetric detection of its loss in dispersion was used to detect PHA crystallization. Techniques based on fluorescence staining of granules (fluorescence spectroscopy and flow cytometry) were used in a more detailed study of the mechanism of PHA plasticization in granules. The results of the analyzes confirmed, among other things, that the optimized procedure makes it possible to isolate granules in the amorphous state, which remain amorphous even after drying and are comparable to native granules in their basic physicochemical properties.

[pt] A derivatização fotoquímica foi utilizada para induzir ou amplificar a fluorescência de três substâncias utilizadas como princípios ativos em medicamentos: tetrabenazina (TBZ), amitriptilina (AMT) e vareniclina (VRN). Com o aumento de fluorescência após o tratamento com radiação UV, métodos espectrofluorimétricos foram desenvolvidos para determinar a concentração de TBZ, a AMT e a VRN em medicamentos e em matrizes biológicas. A avaliação da abordagem por cromatografia líquida de alta eficiência (HPLC) com detecção por fluorescência tambme foi avaliada para a AMT e VRN. Para a determinação de TBZ, a irradiação por 60 min em meio de NaOH (0,45 mol L-1) permitiu a sua quantificação espectrofluorimétrica com um limite de detecção (LD) de 1,4 x 10-8 mol L-1 e faixa linear até 1,0 x 10-5 mol L-1. O método espectrofluorimétrico foi aplicado para determinar TBZ no medicamento com recuperações entre 88 e 95%. A TBZ também foi determinada em saliva fortificada com o analito em concentração próxima ao do limite de quantificação (LQ) com recuperações maiores que 87%. Estudos usando espectrometria de massas com desorção de plasma estimulada por uma fonte de 252Cf foram realizados para identificar a estrutura do fotoderivado, indicando a fotólise da TBZ via reação de Norrish tipo I e II. Para a determinação de AMT, duas abordagens de derivatização fotoquímica permitiram determinar a substância por espectrofluorimetria e por HPLC. Para o método espectrofluorimétrico, a derivatização foi realizada expondo ao UV por 60 min uma solução de AMT, preparada em HCl 0,027 mol L-1. A faixa de resposta linear se estendeu até 1,0 x 10-5 mol L-1 de AMT com um LD de 4,8 x 10-8 mol L-1. Na abordagem cromatográfica, o processo de derivatização da AMT foi ajustado utilizando 30 min de UV em tampão fosfato pH 3. O método permitiu um LD de 6,9 x 10-9 mol L-1 com faixa linear até 2,5 x 10-6 mol L-1 de AMT. Os métodos desenvolvidos foram aplicados na determinação de AMT em medicamento e em material de referência farmacopéico com recuperações entre 94 e 105% para o método fluorimétrico e entre 99 e 111% para a abordagem cromatográfica. A aplicação na determinação da AMT em plasma humano fortificado na concentração de 1,0 x 10-6 mol L-1 forneceram resultados aceitáveis. Os fotoderivados fluorescentes foram separados e identificados por GC-MS, sendo proposto um mecanismo de fotólise da AMT. Para a determinação de VRN, a derivatização fotoquímica em meio básico permitiu a determinação da substância por espectrofluorimetria, sendo também avaliada uma abordagem por HPLC. A derivatização da VRN, realizada expondo o analito ao UV por 23 min em solução de NaOH 0,64 mol L-1, permitiu um LD de 1,5 x 10-8 mol L-1 e uma faixa linear até 1,0 x 10-6 mol L-1. As condições de fotoderivatização também foram adaptadas para a determinação cromatográfica do analito, irradiando-o por 10 min em meio de tampão borato (0,01 mol L-1 pH 10). A aplicação na determinação da VRN no medicamento com recuperações entre 93 e 102% foi alcançada. Para todos os métodos desenvolvidos foi realizada uma análise metrológica simplificada contemplando as fontes de incerteza mais relevantes para o processo de medição dos analitos: o preparo de soluções; a repetibilidade; a precisão intermediária e a curva analítica. As incertezas de medição para cada um dos métodos propostos foram estimadas em três concentrações distintas, no início, no meio e no fim da faixa linear. Os resultados obtidos foram entre 5,8 e 36% de incerteza do valor nominal das concentrações próximas ao LQ e entre 3,1 e 16% para as concentrações dentro na faixa linear dos métodos. Em todos os métodos desenvolvidos foram utilizados procedimentos de derivatização seguros, energeticamente eficientes e com redução de uso de solventes e substâncias tóxicas, em concordância com os princípios da química verde. / [en] Photochemical derivatization was employed to induce or amplify the fluorescence from three substances with pharmacological activities: tetrabenazine (TBZ); amitriptyline (AMT) and varenicline (VRN). The substantial fluorescence enhancement after UV irradiation allowed the development of methods based on spectrofluorimetry for TBZ, AMT and VRN. The approach was also evaluated in high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with fluorimetric detection for the determination of the concentration AMT and VRN in drugs or in biological matrices. For the determination of TBZ, 60 min of UV irradiation of the analyte prepared in NaOH (0.45 mol L-1) allowed its indirect quantification using spectrofluorimetry, with a limit of detection (LOD) of 1.4 x 10-8 mol L-1 and a linear response up to 1.0 x 10-5 mol L-1. Pre-concentration using solid phase extraction improved the LOD in one order of magnitude. The spectrofluorimetric method was applied for the determination of TBZ in a commercial drug, with recoveries between 88 and 95%. TBZ was also determined in analyte fortified saliva at a concentration near the limit of quantitation (LOQ) with recoveries greater than 87%. Studies using plasma desorption mass spectrometry with a 252Cf source, indicated that the photoderivatives of TBZ were obtained through a Norrish Type I and II TBZ photolysis. For the determination of AMT, two photochemical derivatization approaches allowed the determination of the substance by spectrofluorimetry. The approach using HPLC coupled to fluorescence detection was also tested. For the spectrofluorimetric method, the derivatization was achieved after 60 min of UV exposure of a solution of AMT prepared in HCl 0.027 mol L-1. The linear response of the method was up to 1.0 x 10-5 mol L-1 of AMT, with a LOD of 4.8 x 10-8 mol L-1. For the chromatographic method, the derivatization process was adjusted (30 min of UV irradiation in phosphate buffer, pH 3) in order to adapt the reaction for HPLC. The method allowed an LOD of 6.0 x10-9 mol L-1 with a linear range up to 2.5 x 10-6 mol L-1 of AMT. The determination of AMT in drugs and in a pharmacopeial reference material was performed, with recoveries between 94 and 105% for the fluorimetric method and between 99 and 111% using HPLC. The analysis of human plasma was also made using AMT (1.0 x 10-6 mol L-1) fortified samples. The fluorescent photoderivatives were separated and identified by GC-MS, which allowed the proposal of a photolysis mechanism of AMT. For the determination of VRN, the photochemical derivatization in basic medium allowed the determination of the substance by spectrofluorimetry. The derivatization of VRN, performed by exposing the analyte to the UV during 23 minutes in NaOH 0.64 mol L-1, allowed a LOD of 1.5 x10-8 mol L-1 and a linear range extending up to 1.0 x10-6 mol L-1. The derivatization condition were also adapted for the determination of the analyte using HPLC with fluorimetric detection, by irradiating VRN for 10 min in borate buffer (0.01 mol L-1 pH 10). Both methods were applied for the determination of VRN in a commercial drug, with recoveries between 93 and 102%. For all the developed methods, a simplified metrological evaluation was performed, considering the most relevant sources of uncertainty during the measurement process of the analytes studied in this thesis: solution preparation, intra and inter-day precision and the analytical curve. The uncertainty sources for each of the proposed methods were estimated in three different concentrations within the linear range. Measurement uncertainty estimations were between 5.8 and 36% of the nominal concentration in the concentrations near the LOQ and between 3.1 and 16% in the concentrations within the linear range of the methods. Safer, energetically efficient procedures with solvent reduction and without the use of toxic reagents were proposed, in agreement to green chemistry principles.

Maîtriser l’impact des maladies sur les cultures est un défi majeur de l’agriculture moderne. Cette préoccupation est un aspect important de l’optimisation de la productivité, notamment en viticulture. En France, le mildiou de la vigne causé par Plasmopara viticola est une des maladies cryptogamiques responsable des épidémies les plus dévastatrices et les plus redoutées. Les traitements reposent sur l’utilisation préventive, systématique et onéreuse de composés chimiques antifongiques dont l’utilisation massive constitue un risque à la fois pour l’homme et l’environnement. La réduction de l’utilisation de fongicide implique le développement d’outils de diagnostic au champ, qui requiert la compréhension des interactions entre la plante et les agents pathogènes. Les travaux de cette thèse pluridisciplinaire ont porté sur le pathosystème Plasmopara viticola - Vitis vinifera, notamment pour répondre à l’intérêt croissant pour un outil de diagnostic en temps réel de la maladie utilisable au vignoble. Les stilbènes sont des phytoalexines impliqués dans la défense de certaines plantes supérieures vis-à-vis de stress biotiques et abiotiques. L’autofluorescence de ces composés phénoliques, dont la biosynthèse est induite dans les feuilles de vigne par P. viticola, en fait un potentiel marqueur naturel de l’infection. En effet, la faible autofluorescence bleu-verte des feuilles de vigne saines est considérablement renforcée par l’autofluorescence violet-bleue des stilbènes à la surface de feuilles de vigne infectée par P. viticola. Cette étude a montré que quelque soit le niveau de résistance du génotype, l’autofluorescence violet-bleue des stilbènes induit par l’infection est présente au niveau des parois des cellules de l’épiderme. En dehors de la concentration, la viscosité s’est révélé être la principale variable physico-chimique influençant l’intensité de l’autofluorescence des stilbènes dans les différents compartiments cellulaires des feuilles de vigne. Ceci explique la fluorescence intense des parois, particulièrement rigides, des cellules de garde (stomates) des feuilles infectées. Le suivi cinétique journalier a révélé la nature transitoire de l’autofluorescence des stilbènes lors de l’infection. La robustesse et l’intérêt de ce signal a également été validée par la mesure à différentes échelles (de la cellule à la feuille entière) et avec différentes méthodes fluorimétriques. Les résultats de ce travail ont permis des avancées sur la connaissance du rôle de composés phénoliques induits et constitutifs dans la défense contre P. viticola. En plus de la localisation de l’autofluorescence des stilbènes en surface des feuilles, la microscopie confocale couplée à la microspectrofluorimetrie a révélé différentes localisations de ces phytoalexines dans la profondeur des tissus en corrélation avec le niveau de résistance des génotypes. L’utilisation de l’autofluorescence des stilbènes comme marqueur de l’infection a permis de mettre en évidence : 1) le fait que les flavonols constitutifs des feuilles de V. vinifera retardent le développement de l’infection par P. viticola; et 2) le fait que les acides hydroxycinnamiques constitutifs ne semble pas participer à la défense contre P. viticola. Enfin, une nouvelle méthode de diagnostic non-destructive du mildiou sur feuille basée sur l’autofluorescence des stilbènes a été développée. Elle a montré une détection pré-symptomatique du mildiou sur les feuilles de vigne entières dès le premier jour après l’infection sur la face abaxiale et le troisième jour sur la face adaxiale. Cette méthode de diagnostic du mildiou a été validée au laboratoire notamment grâce à un prototype de capteur proximal développé en collaboration avec la société Force-A. La validation de la méthode au vignoble dans le cadre d’infection naturelle est la prochaine étape pour une utilisation de ce capteur optique dans le cadre de l’agriculture durable et de la sélection variétale. / Controlling the impact of diseases on crops is a major challenge of modern agriculture. This concern is an important aspect of optimizing productivity, notably in viticulture. In France, downy mildew caused by Plasmopara viticola is a fungal disease responsible for the most devastating epidemics. The preventive and systematic treatments are expensive, while the massive use of antifungal chemicals is a risk to both humans and the environment. Reducing the use of fungicide involves the development of diagnostic tools in the field, which requires understanding the interactions between plants and pathogens. The work of this multidisciplinary thesis focused on the pathosystem Plasmopara viticola - Vitis vinifera, especially to meet the growing interest in a real-time diagnostic tool of disease applicable in the vineyard. Stilbenes are phytoalexins involved in the defense of certain higher plants against biotic and abiotic stresses. The autofluorescence of these phenolic compounds, whose biosynthesis is induced in grapevine leaves by P. viticola, makes it a potential marker of natural infection. Indeed, the low blue-green autofluorescence of grapevine leaves is greatly enhanced by the violet-blue autofluorescence of stilbenes on the surface of leaves infected by P. viticola. This study showed that whatever the level of resistance in various genotypes, violet-blue autofluorescence induced by stilbene is present in the walls of epidermal cells. In addition to their concentration, viscosity proved the main physico-chemical variable affecting the intensity of the autofluorescence of stilbenes in different compartments of vine leaves. This explains the intense fluorescence of the walls, particularly rigid, of guard cells (stomata) of infected leaves. Daily monitoring revealed a kinetic with a transient rise of the autofluorescence of stilbenes during infection. The robustness and value of this signal was also validated by measuring at different levels (cellular to whole leaf) and with various fluorimetric methods (imaging, spectroscopy, proximal sensing). These results advance our understanding of the role of constitutive and induced phenolic compounds in plant defence against P. viticola. In addition to a common location of the autofluorescence of stilbenes on the leaf surface, confocal microscopy coupled with microspectrofluorometry revealed distinctive localizations of these phytoalexins in the deep tissue correlated with the level of resistance in genotypes. This aspect no doubt needs broader testing. The use of autofluorescence of stilbene as a marker of infection allowed us to ascertain that: 1) constitutive flavonols of the leaves of V. vinifera retard the development of infection by P. viticola and 2) the constitutive hydroxycinnamic acids do not seem to participate in the defence against P. viticola. Finally, a new method for the non-destructive diagnosis of leaf infection based on the autofluorescence of stilbenes has been developed. We have demonstrated a pre-symptomatic detection of downy mildew on whole grape leaves from the first day after infection on the abaxial surface and from the third day on the adaxial surface. This method of diagnosis has been validated in the laboratory thanks to a proximal sensor prototype developed in collaboration with the company Force-A. The validation of the method in the vineyard in a context of natural infections is the next step for use of this optical sensor as a tool for sustainable agriculture and for genetic screening.