Dans cette thèse, on a étudié les propriétés rhéologiques et moussantes de phases de bicouches, de type lamellaire et éponge, en utilisant le système expérimental SDS/hexanol/saumure. On a également préparé des mousses avec ces deux phases de bicouches, dont on a étudié la stabilité et les mécanismes d’évolution dans le temps. En premier lieu, les propriétés rhéologiques de la phase éponge ont été examinées. Les échantillons ayant une fraction volumique de membrane phi ≥ 0.08 se comportent comme des fluides Newtoniens. Avec les moins concentrés, phi = 0.05 et 0.024, un changement de viscosité est observé à environ 1000 et 100 s⁻¹, respectivement. Ce changement pourrait être lié à une transition de la phase éponge vers une phase lamellaire induite par cisaillement. Les changements de viscosité qui suggèrent une transition éponge-lamellaire induite par l’écoulement ont été plus facilement détectés pour l'échantillon de fraction volumique phi = 0.024. Pour cet échantillon, il a été constaté qu’à des températures plus basses ou lors de l’ajout d’un polymère hydrosoluble (PEG), la variation de la viscosité liée à la transition de phase éponge-lamellaire se produit à des valeurs inférieures de la vitesse de cisaillement. L’étude des propriétés rhéologiques de la phase lamellaire a ensuite été menée. Les expériences ont révélé le comportement de gel faible des échantillons. A une fréquence de 10 rad/s et dans un intervalle de température compris entre 5 à 50 °C, il n’y a aucun changement perceptible des modules G’ et G’’, donc pas de transition de phase, sauf pour les échantillons les moins concentrés : dans ce cas, la température a un effet plus marqué, et la structure lamellaire évolue probablement. Lorsque le taux de cisaillement augmente, il a été observé que les échantillons avec phi ≥ 0.10 présentent une forte augmentation de la viscosité à partir d’une valeur seuil du taux de cisaillement. Cette observation, combinée avec des résultats de Rhéo-SAXS, a permis de conclure qu’il y a une transition vers une phase de vésicules (ou oignons) induite par l’écoulement. Les expériences de Rhéo-SAXS ont montré que, après l’arrêt du cisaillement, la phase de vésicules relaxe vers la phase lamellaire initiale au bout d’un temps typique d’une demi-heure. Enfin, des mousses ont été obtenues par incorporation de bulles d’air dans les phases lamellaire et éponge précédemment étudiées. Les mousses faites avec les phases lamellaires présentent une grande stabilité, probablement en raison de la viscosité élevée de ces gels. De plus, ces gels présentent des contraintes seuils d’écoulement faibles. Lorsque les bulles sont petites, la contrainte seuil est supérieure à la contrainte de pesanteur sur les bulles de la mousse (force d’Archimède). Mais ces bulles grossissent avec le temps (mûrissement dû aux différences de pression de Laplace entre bulles) et lorsque la contrainte de pesanteur dépasse la contrainte seuil du gel, le drainage de la mousse commence. On a constaté que la taille des bulles évoluait avec le temps en suivant une loi de puissance. Cependant, l’exposant (≈ 0.25) est plus petit que ceux trouvés pour le mûrissement d’Ostwald (0.333, valable pour des bulles isolées) ou le mûrissement des mousses (0.5). Le fait que l’exposant trouvé soit plus petit pourrait être lié à la réorientation des domaines lamellaires lors du mûrissement. Enfin, les mousses préparées avec des phases éponge présentent une faible stabilité probablement due aux passages internes entre bicouches qui forment la structure éponge, passages qui pourraient faciliter la coalescence des bulles. Deux scénarii ont été détectés lors de l’évolution de ces mousses: à basse fraction volumique de membrane, l’effondrement de la mousse commence pendant son drainage, alors que les mousses faites avec les échantillons les plus concentrés ont le temps de mûrir avant de s’effondrer. / In this thesis a study of the rheological and foaming properties of the lamellar and sponge phases of the SDS/hexanol/brine system was performed. Shear rate and temperature sweeps were done to analyze the rheology of the lamellar and sponge phases, adding frequency sweeps for the lamellar phase samples. Also, foamability and foam stability tests of foams made with these two phases were done. Sponge phase samples with membrane volume fractions phi ≥ 0.08 showed a Newtonian behavior, whereas in the less concentrated ones, phi 0.05 and 0.024, a change in viscosity was seen at shear rate values near to 1000 and 100 s ⁻¹, respectively. This change can be linked to a shear induced transition sponge to lamellar phase. Results indicate that temperature and the addition of the hydrosoluble polymer PEG affect the shear rate value at which this transition occurs. Lamellar phase samples with phi ≥ 0.10 presented a sharp increase in viscosity at intermediate shear rate values. The standard rheology technique together with Rheo-SAXS experiments allowed us to infer that there is a shear induced phase transition to vesicle phase. Rheo-SAXS data confirmed that the average interlamellar vesicle phase decreases by the effect of shear rate, and, when shear is stopped, the vesicle structure is relaxed and goes back to the lamellar phase after certain time. Foams made with lamellar phase samples showed a high stability and it was found that the time evolution of the bubble diameter follows a power law equation with exponents smaller than those reported for coarsening and Ostwald ripening. The small values of these exponents seem to be related with orientation defects of the liquid crystalline phase. On the opposite, the foams made with the sponge phase samples presented poor stability, as a possible consequence of the passages that form their structure that could facilitate coalescence of bubbles.

<p>This thesis concerns the development and utilisation of techniques for characterisation and transdermal delivery of various systems for pharmaceutical applications.</p><p>The degree of dissociation of drug molecules and the mobilities of the different species formed are essential factors affecting the rate of drug delivery by iontophoresis. Hence, determination of drug mobility parameters and equilibrium constants are important for the development of iontophoretic systems. With capillary zone electrophoresis using a partial filling technique and methyl-β-cyclodextrin as chiral selector, the enantiomers of orciprenaline were separated. The association constants between the enantiomers of the drug and the selector were also evaluated. Precision conductometry studies were performed for the hydrochloride salts of lidocaine and 5-aminolevulinic acid in aqueous propylene glycol and water as media, respectively.</p><p>Iontophoresis is a technique for drug delivery where charged molecules are transported into and through skin by application of a weak direct electrical current. The drugs 5-aminolevulinic acid and its methyl ester were used as model compounds and incorporated in two different drug delivery vehicles, a sponge phase and carbopol gel. The bicontinuous structure of the sponge phase, constituted of monoolein and a mixture of propylene glycol and water, makes it interesting for use in iontophoretic delivery, since ions can move more or less freely in the aqueous as well as in the lipid domains. Furthermore, all three components are known for their penetration enhancing abilities. Hydrogels like carbopol gels are interesting media with respect to iontophoretic studies, since devices for iontophoresis often utilize hydrogels as contact interfaces between the skin and the electrodes. The results indicate that the transport achieved iontophoretically using the gel (1 % active substance) was comparable with the passive delivery of clinically used formulations (16 % - 20 % active substance).</p>

This thesis concerns the development and utilisation of techniques for characterisation and transdermal delivery of various systems for pharmaceutical applications. The degree of dissociation of drug molecules and the mobilities of the different species formed are essential factors affecting the rate of drug delivery by iontophoresis. Hence, determination of drug mobility parameters and equilibrium constants are important for the development of iontophoretic systems. With capillary zone electrophoresis using a partial filling technique and methyl-β-cyclodextrin as chiral selector, the enantiomers of orciprenaline were separated. The association constants between the enantiomers of the drug and the selector were also evaluated. Precision conductometry studies were performed for the hydrochloride salts of lidocaine and 5-aminolevulinic acid in aqueous propylene glycol and water as media, respectively. Iontophoresis is a technique for drug delivery where charged molecules are transported into and through skin by application of a weak direct electrical current. The drugs 5-aminolevulinic acid and its methyl ester were used as model compounds and incorporated in two different drug delivery vehicles, a sponge phase and carbopol gel. The bicontinuous structure of the sponge phase, constituted of monoolein and a mixture of propylene glycol and water, makes it interesting for use in iontophoretic delivery, since ions can move more or less freely in the aqueous as well as in the lipid domains. Furthermore, all three components are known for their penetration enhancing abilities. Hydrogels like carbopol gels are interesting media with respect to iontophoretic studies, since devices for iontophoresis often utilize hydrogels as contact interfaces between the skin and the electrodes. The results indicate that the transport achieved iontophoretically using the gel (1 % active substance) was comparable with the passive delivery of clinically used formulations (16 % - 20 % active substance).

Les membranes biologiques, qui compartimentent les différents éléments du vivant, jouent un rôle essentiel dans les processus biologiques comme la signalisation, le transport, la transmission du message nerveux, etc. Envisagées comme des fluides à deux dimensions, l’étude de leurs propriétés physiques peut nous aider à comprendre certains mécanismes biologiques. Ce travail de thèse s’est intéressé à la mobilité des molécules au sein des membranes, et notamment à deux paramètres essentiels, la viscosité membranaire, et la diffusion latérale. Après avoir optimisé la technique de recouvrement de fluorescence après photoblanchiment (FRAP) au microscope confocal, nous avons étudié la mobilité des molécules au sein de deux types de membranes modèles in vitro : la phase éponge d’un surfactant non-ionique (C12E5) et les vésicules géantes unilamellaires (GUVs) lipidiques. 1) La phase éponge (ou L3) : après avoir déterminé son diagramme de phase et montré que les protéines membranaires restent actives dans cette phase, nous avons mesuré la mobilité de protéines par recouvrement de fluorescence après photoblanchiment sur un motif à franges (FRAPP). Cela nous a permis d’obtenir les constantes d’association de protéines de la pompe d’efflux OprM-MexAB, impliquée dans la résistance aux antibiotiques de la bactérie Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Ces interactions dépendent très fortement du degré de confinement de chacune des protéines. 2) Les GUVs : après avoir développé une méthode simple de formation des GUVs, au sein desquelles les protéines membranaires restent actives, nous avons mesuré la diffusion des lipides par FRAP, et montré que dans certaines conditions, ils se déplacent en groupe, ce qui permet d’expliquer la diversité des résultats de la littérature. En mesurant la viscosité membranaire par imagerie microscopique du temps de vie de fluorescence (FLIM), nous avons également montré qu’elle ne se déduit pas nécessairement des modèles hydrodynamiques de diffusion. / Biological membranes, which divide the elements of life, are a key factor in biological processes such as signaling, transport, transmission of an nerve impulse, etc. Seen as two-dimensional fluids, the study of their physical properties could help us understand some unsolved biological mechanisms. This work focused on molecule mobility within membranes, and specifically on two essential parameters: membrane viscosity and lateral diffusion. After optimizing the Fluorescence Recovery After Photobleaching (FRAP) technique on confocal microscopes, we studied the mobility of molecules within two types of in vitro model membranes: the sponge phase made of a non-ionic surfactant (C12E5) and the giant unilamellar lipidic vesicles (GUVs). 1) Sponge phase (or L3) : after having established its phase diagram and shown that membrane proteins stay active in this phase, we measured protein mobility by Fluorescence Recovery After fringe Pattern Photobleaching (FRAPP). This allowed us to obtain the association constants of the proteins of the efflux pump OprM-MexAB involved in the resistance to antibiotics of the bacteria Pseudomonas aeruginosa. These interactions heavily depend on the degree of confinement of each protein. 2) GUVs : after having developed a simple method for the formation of GUVs, in which membrane proteins stay active, we measured the lipid diffusion by FRAP. We showed that, under certain conditions, they can move together, which explains the diversity of results in the literature. By measuring membrane viscosity by Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging Microscopy (FLIM), we also showed that viscosity should not be necessarily deduced from hydrodynamic diffusion models.

<p>A new kind of lipid/polymer composite particle, consisting of a biodegradable polymer matrix with well-defined lipid domains, has been created. The lipid used is the water-swelling lipid monoolein (MO), which forms a reversed bicontinuous cubic diamond structure in aqueous solutions. The polymer is poly(d,l-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLG), which degrades into water-soluble monomers through hydrolysis. This new particle might be a good alternative for encapsulation of active substances intended to be released over a longer period of time, i.e. sustained/retained/controlled release.</p><p>To prepare such particles can be difficult. Suitable phase behaviour and a solvent with the right properties are needed. For this reason, the phase behaviours of several different lipid/polymer/solvent/water systems have been explored. From the phase behaviour of a suitable system (i.e. MO/PLG/ethyl acetate/water), a route for formation of lipid/polymer composite particles has been deduced. Particles have been formed and distinct, water-swelling, lipid domains have been confirmed by characterization by means of confocal laser scanning probe microscopy (CLSM). </p><p>The sample preparation process has been automated and a method based on using a robotic liquid handler has been developed. Phase diagrams have been determined by examination of macroscopic behaviours and the microstructures of the phases have been studied by small- and wide-angle X-ray scattering (L₃, V₂, L_α, L), nuclear magnetic resonance self-diffusion (L, L₃), viscosimetry (L) and rheology (L). Several different theoretical models have been applied for interpretation of the results. For example, the swelling of the reversed bicontinuous cubic phases and the sponge phase have been modelled by applying the theory of infinite periodical minimal surfaces, the sponge phase has been shown to be bicontinuous according to the theory of interconnected rods and the phase behaviour of the polymer has been described by the Flory-Huggins theory. The main focus of this work (4/5) concerns phase studies in multicomponent systems from a physical-chemical point of view.</p>

A new kind of lipid/polymer composite particle, consisting of a biodegradable polymer matrix with well-defined lipid domains, has been created. The lipid used is the water-swelling lipid monoolein (MO), which forms a reversed bicontinuous cubic diamond structure in aqueous solutions. The polymer is poly(d,l-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLG), which degrades into water-soluble monomers through hydrolysis. This new particle might be a good alternative for encapsulation of active substances intended to be released over a longer period of time, i.e. sustained/retained/controlled release. To prepare such particles can be difficult. Suitable phase behaviour and a solvent with the right properties are needed. For this reason, the phase behaviours of several different lipid/polymer/solvent/water systems have been explored. From the phase behaviour of a suitable system (i.e. MO/PLG/ethyl acetate/water), a route for formation of lipid/polymer composite particles has been deduced. Particles have been formed and distinct, water-swelling, lipid domains have been confirmed by characterization by means of confocal laser scanning probe microscopy (CLSM). The sample preparation process has been automated and a method based on using a robotic liquid handler has been developed. Phase diagrams have been determined by examination of macroscopic behaviours and the microstructures of the phases have been studied by small- and wide-angle X-ray scattering (L3, V2, Lα, L), nuclear magnetic resonance self-diffusion (L, L3), viscosimetry (L) and rheology (L). Several different theoretical models have been applied for interpretation of the results. For example, the swelling of the reversed bicontinuous cubic phases and the sponge phase have been modelled by applying the theory of infinite periodical minimal surfaces, the sponge phase has been shown to be bicontinuous according to the theory of interconnected rods and the phase behaviour of the polymer has been described by the Flory-Huggins theory. The main focus of this work (4/5) concerns phase studies in multicomponent systems from a physical-chemical point of view.