The purpose of this research was to investigate how a selection of task variables and positive mood state would impact an overall latent interpretation of organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). Additionally, this study was designed to explore a previously untapped population in sport management research by sampling employees from a company involved in the manufacture of outdoor recreation products (n = 374). The organization was based in the United States and recorded nearly $100 million in sales for the year 2002. The survey data were gathered through group meetings during personal visits to each of three company locations. All levels of employees completed the questionnaires. An exploratory structural equation model outlining the relationships among a selection of task variables, job satisfaction, positive mood state, job self-efficacy, and organizational citizenship behavior was developed and empirically tested for its legitimacy and validity. The model proposed that the four exogenous task variables of task significance, task routinization, intrinsically satisfying tasks, and task autonomy would predict job satisfaction; while , positive mood state, and job self-efficacy would predict. The results suggested that task autonomy and intrinsically satisfying tasks predicted job satisfaction, while job satisfaction and job self-efficacy predicted OCB. Positive mood state was not determined to influence OCB in the current sample. The findings are discussed in the context of contributions to the field of sport management and organizational behavior in general. Future research suggestions are forwarded. / A Dissertation Submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management, and Physical Education in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2003. / June 5, 2003. / Organizational Citizenship Behavior, Job Satisfaction / Includes bibliographical references. / Aubrey Kent, Professor Directing Dissertation; Pamela Perrewé, Outside Committee Member; Michael Mondello, Committee Member; Jerome Quarterman, Committee Member.

The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (1996) has identified regular participation in physical activity as an important determinant of health. Unfortunately, many people are not getting an adequate amount of physical activity – 60% of adults and 50% of teens are not physically active on regular basis, and female adolescents tend to decline in physical activity levels from age twelve. This study was designed to investigate the effects of goal setting on female middle school students' physical activity levels and motivation toward exercise. Forty-six eighth grade females, enrolled in six, intact physical education classes from one K-12 charter school in the southeastern United States, were recruited for this study. A one-week baseline and six-week intervention was conducted to collect physical activity levels (step counts) by using the Yamax SW-701 electronic pedometer. The Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire-2 (BREQ-2) was used to collect the motivation scores prior to and after the study. Participants were randomly assigned into either a goal setting or "do your best" group. Participants in the goal setting group used goal-setting strategies to include providing physical activity information, self-mentoring, feedback, resetting goals, and analyzing their own exercise behavior. The results indicated there were significant main effects of time (7 weeks) and interaction of time by group for step counts. Similarly, there was a significant interaction effect of time by group in motivation (autonomy), but no main effect of time was found. It was concluded that the use of a pedometer along with goal setting strategies did help motivate students to increase step counts. / A Dissertation Submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management, and Physical Education in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2004. / June 23, 2004. / Goal Setting in Sports and Physical Activity, Female Adolescents - Middle School Students, Measurement of Physical Activity, Goal Setting Theory / Includes bibliographical references. / Thomas Ratliffe, Professor Directing Dissertation; Tonya Toole, Outside Committee Member; Charles Imwold, Committee Member; Kristie Walsdorf, Committee Member.

The dawning of the "Communication Age" (Lull, 2002), which is the efficient transmission of digitized bits and bytes and also the significance of the entire communication process for 'real people,' stimulates two questions: is modern society engrossed in communicating primarily with technology, and has face-to-face communication become obsolete? Contextualizing these digital age questions into intercollegiate athletics, the purpose of the study was to discover what elements synthesize to form the culture of communication in the Division I-A sports information office. An extensive ethnographic study was utilized to 'crack the code' of communication in the SID office. Drawing upon heuristics, or the intense personal experience of the researcher as a framework, this sport ethnography used in-depth participant observation and interviews to discover the verbal, non-verbal and technological communication methods, and also examined the artifacts and rituals of the SID. An ethnography of communication is the application of ethnographic methods to the communication patterns of a group (Littlejohn, 1999). Three theoretical areas were explored in the literature review: 1) communication theory, 2) how sport culture is created and evolves, and 3) how an ethnography of communication is defined and how it was implemented to conduct the study. Sands (2002, p. 150) stated, "sport reflects culture and culture reflects sport." In his book Sport Ethnography, Sands argued that sport has become a dominant part of contemporary human society. He posited, "sport is pervasive and never ceasing, casting giant shadows on other facets of life." Five thematic areas of SID culture were identified at the conclusion of the study: 1) Office space fostered a culture of separation, 2) verbal communication was sporadic, rushed and a culture of avoidance was prominent, 3) electronic communication was the preferred method the SID's used to communicate with each other and the outside world, confirming a major paradigmatic shift in SID culture, 4) non-verbal communication methods were used as interpersonal defense mechanisms, and 5) the analysis of SID rituals and artifacts showed a culture of production, an expectation of immediacy in job performance, paper culture vs. electronic technology and a culture of virtual anonymity for SID's. / A Dissertation Submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management and Physical Education in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2004. / June 15, 2004. / Sports Information Directors, Sport Communication, SID's, Sports Media, Sport Culture, Sports Communications, Sport Ethnography, Culture of Communication / Includes bibliographical references. / Aubrey Kent, Professor Directing Dissertation; Davis Houck, Outside Committee Member; Michael Mondello, Committee Member; Cecile Reynaud, Committee Member.

The present study examined the influences of instructions that directed the learner's attention to either an internal focus or external focus on the performance and learning of a dynamic balance task. The instructions given were related to either the participant's own body movements (internal focus) or to the effects their movements had on the apparatus (external focus) (Wulf et. al, 1998). The purpose of this study was to investigate balance performance and learning in 9-12 year old children using internal and external focus of attention strategies. Participants were 9-12 year olds (N= 88) from intact physical education classes at a K-12 public school in Tallahassee, Florida. The hypotheses tested were instructions referring to an external focus of attention would be more effective in promoting balance performance and learning than internal focus instructions for 9-10 year olds and 11-12 year olds. Participants were randomly assigned into an external focus group, internal focus group and control group for 9-10 year olds and 11-12 year olds. A Biodex Dynamic Balance System was used to measure select dependent variables (overall stability, anterior/posterior stability, medial/lateral stability, mean deflection, anterior/posterior deflection and medial/lateral deflection) for six instructional set trials. A questionnaire was given to participants following the testing trials to examine whether or not participants were focusing on the instructional set cues. The instructional set cues were as follows: stand as still as possible while "keeping your feet still" (internal focus), stand as still as possible while "keeping the platform still" (external focus), stand as still as possible (control group). Two days following the testing trials, each group completed three retention trials with no focus of attention instructions provided. Participants who were given an external focus cue and said they used it based on the results of the questionnaire were significantly better in balance performance and learning than those who were given an internal focus cue and said they used it. All participants who said they used an external focus cue regardless of what focus group they were randomly assigned were better in balance performance and learning than participants who said they used an internal cue. / A Dissertation Submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management, and Physical Education in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2006. / March 14, 2006. / Biodex Balance System, External Focus of Attention, Attentional Focus / Includes bibliographical references. / Charles Imwold, Professor Directing Dissertation; Emily Haymes, Outside Committee Member; Gabriele Wulf, Committee Member; Tom Ratliffe, Committee Member; Kristy Walsdorf, Committee Member.

The purpose of this study was to compare more and less physically active college females related to a number of factors in body image and self-esteem. The specific areas investigated were: body image, self-esteem, and exercise levels for college females. This study investigated how body image and self-esteem were affected as a result of college females exercising more or less in physical activity. Specifically, college women ages eighteen to twenty-five were the focus of the subjects who participated in this study. Two groups were formed and compared: The college females who were more physically active and the college females who were less physically active. All subjects were surveyed on body image items and self-esteem items. The Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ)( Cash, 2000) was used to assess self-attitudinal aspects of body image and the Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1965) was used to assess self-esteem. The college females were surveyed in two main locations: females who were enrolled in a activity class under the Lifetime Activities Program and females who were attending classes in the Department of Early Childhood and Elementary Education. The females were then divided into two groups based on more and less physical activity. The more and less were calculated by days per week and minutes per day. The statistics used for analyzing the survey responses as well as the results of the Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire and The Self-Esteem Scale included t-tests, descriptive statistics, correlations, and multiple regression analyses. All statistics were calculated using SPSS for Windows. Results of this study showed significance when an independent t test was used to compare Exercise Level and Self- Esteem. The results also showed a positive correlation between Exercise Level and Fitness Self-Evaluation, Fitness Orientation, Health Self-Evaluation, Health Orientation, and a negative correlation between Exercise Level and Self-Esteem. / A Dissertation Submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management & Physical Education in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2004. / June 9, 2004. / Body image, Self-esteem, Exercise levels, College females / Includes bibliographical references. / Charles H. Imwold, Professor Directing Dissertation; Sande Milton, Outside Committee Member; Susan Lynn, Committee Member; Kristie Walsdorf, Committee Member.

The current research was undertaken to propose a model of the components of customer equity in a spectator team sport setting and to identify and empirically test measures to assess one part of the model, namely: value equity. Value equity refers to the portion of a firm's customer equity derived from customers' perceived value or worth of that firm's product offerings. The measurement of customer perceived value is essential in assessing current services and for the development of further ones, because customer segments may have different motives to use services and thus perceive different value in them (Pura, 2005). This study, which is a first attempt to measure Value Equity within a spectator sport context, presents a conceptualization of Value Equity derived from a combination of the frameworks proposed by Sheth, Newman, and Gross (1991), Rust, Zeithaml, and Lemon (2000), and Sweeney and Soutar (2001), and includes six dimensions: 1) entertainment value; 2) social value; 3) service quality; 4) perceived price; 5) epistemic value; and 6) Satisfaction. A pilot study involving a sample (n = 254) of consumers at a NCAA Division I baseball game was conducted to provide an initial test of the items in the measurement scales to establish preliminary validity and reliability. Descriptive statistics, internal consistency reliability, and exploratory factor analysis were utilized in the data analysis. The first-order factor structure of Value Equity comprised of five dimensions, 16 first-order latent variables, and 75 indicator variables was tested in five separate exploratory factor analyses, one for each of the dimensions of Value Equity, to explain the variance in the observed variables in terms of underlying latent factors. The results of the pilot study indicated that the data fit the model reasonably well, though room for improvement remained. Modifications to the model resulted in a first-order model of Value Equity comprised of 16 dimensions and 75 items, which was tested in the next phase of the study. The main phase of the study was comprised of two separate data collections. The first data collection involved a convenience sample (n = 376) of spectators in attendance at a 'Double A' minor league baseball game. Based on the analysis of the results of the pilot study, a 16-factor model was tested using all 75 items, and internal tests and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) were performed. The results indicated the 16-factor model of Value Equity in Spectator Sports Scale did not adequately fit the data. The 16-factor model with 75 indicators needed to be modified to provide the best fit to the data based on suggestions from the tests of model estimations and fit of the internal structure. Based on Bollen's (1989) criteria for model respecification, the model was modified accordingly. The modifications resulted in the testing of a 14-factor, 64-item model. The psychometric properties of the respecified measurement model were acceptable, as were the assessment of the global and internal fit indices. Given the favorable results, the researcher proceeded to a second data collection, which was used to validate the results of the respecified model. The second data collection of the main study comprised a sample (n = 285) of undergraduate and graduate students at a large Southeastern university. The analysis of the results of the second data collection served to confirm the revised model from the analysis of the results from the first data collection. Finally, a second order HCFA was conducted to test the relationship between the proposed higher order factors on the first order latent variables. While the results of the first-order CFA provided support for discrimination among the first-order factors, the results of the HCFA presented in this chapter indicate the predicted higher-model may not be appropriate for the current population from which the sample was drawn. The final chapter presents a discussion of the findings and reported results, as well as content discussing the implications and limitations of the current research project. Suggestions for future research are also provided. / A Dissertation Submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management, and Physical Education in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2008. / March 6, 2008. / Customer equity, Scale development, Value equity, Customer value, Sport marketing / Includes bibliographical references. / Jeffrey D. James, Professor Directing Dissertation; J. Joseph Cronin, Jr., Outside Committee Member; R. Aubrey Kent, Committee Member; Steven McClung, Committee Member.

As evidenced in the literature, innovations and enhancements in video technology have enabled educators in various content areas to provide an alternative, yet innovative means of presenting information and feedback to students. Research has also shown the effectiveness of video with professional athletes, college athletes, and higher skilled students. However, research dealing with the effectiveness of video with lower skilled students in physical education is minimal. Knowing this, the current study examined the effectiveness of digital video feedback when used with students who were in the beginning or associative stages of learning. The study also examined if any learning differences existed between males and females when using video feedback and the role video feedback played in student motivation. Participants (n=73) were divided into three interventions (video, traditional, verbal) and were given the task of juggling a soccer ball as many times as they could with their feet. After five weeks, a post-test and a retention test were given to each intervention. Results showed that when digital video feedback was used with eight grade physical education students in this particular context, no differences existed between the interventions for the post-test and retention test. Further results indicated that males and females reap similar benefits from using digital video feedback when used with the skill of soccer juggling. Qualitative results showed that when digital video feedback was used on a daily basis, it had the potential to negatively affect student motivation toward the skill being learned. Further insight and thoughts about the use and implementation of digital video feedback are discussed along with recommendations for future studies within this area. / A Dissertation Submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management, and Physical Education in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Spring Semester, 2006. / March 13, 2006. / Video Feedback and Physical Education, Digital Video and Physical Education, Motor Skills and Video Feedback, Motivation and Video Feedback, Visual Feedback, Digital Video Feedback, Gender and Video Feedback / Includes bibliographical references. / Charles Imwold, Professor Directing Dissertation; Gershon Tenenbaum, Outside Committee Member; Thomas Ratliffe, Committee Member; Kristie Walsdorf, Committee Member.

Celebrity endorsement is a popular strategy in advertising. Marketers have spent millions of dollars on contracts with celebrity endorsers. To evaluate the effects of celebrity endorsement, researchers have examined consumers' perceptions toward source credibility and the interaction between consumers' perceptions and their attitudes toward advertisements, products, and purchase intentions. The impact of gender has also been studied. The research of celebrity athlete endorsement in the realm of sport management, however, has received little attention despite its high risk and high cost. The current study examined the possibility of cross-over endorsements based on the idea that male athletes may credibly endorse women's sports products. The purposes of this study included: 1) examining the influence of a celebrity athlete endorser's gender on consumers' perceptions of the endorser's credibility (expertise, trustworthiness and attractiveness); 2) examining the impact of a celebrity athlete endorser's gender on consumers' attitudes toward advertisement and attitudes toward a product; and 3) assessing the impact of a celebrity athlete endorser's gender on consumers' purchase intentions. Data was collected from 413 students at the large SE state university during the summer semester in 2006. The data revealed three primary findings. First, male subjects perceived a male tennis endorser as having more expertise than a female tennis endorser, and both male and female subjects perceived a female soccer athlete as having more trustworthiness than a male athlete. Second, male subjects rated female soccer and tennis athletes as more attractive than male soccer and tennis athletes. The male basketball athlete was rated as more attractive than the female basketball athlete by male respondents. Females, on the other hand, rated the male soccer athlete as more attractive than the female soccer athlete. Third, only female subjects showed their intention to purchase the tennis shoes endorsed by the male (opposite sex) athlete more than shoes endorsed by the female (same sex) athlete. As for the rest, endorser's gender did not influence male and female subjects' attitudes toward advertisements and products and subjects' purchase intentions / A Thesis Submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management, and Physical Education in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science.. / Fall Semester, 2005. / October 25, 2006. / Celebrity Athlete Endorsement / Includes bibliographical references. / Jeffrey James, Professor Directing Thesis; Aubrey Kent, Committee Member; Cecile Reynaud, Committee Member.

The foundations laid by democracy engrained in society a responsibility to help fellow citizens. As observed by De Tocqueville in 1831, "by dint of working for one's fellow citizens, the habit and taste for serving them is at length acquired." Community service has been studied from many perspectives throughout time, but the unique situation of an athlete engaging in community service, has received little attention. From extrapolation of literature in psychology and marketing, the instance of an athlete performing community service has the potential to create a triad of benefits. Research suggests benefits can be experienced by the athletes themselves, the community in which they are serving, and the institution, or organization the athletes represent. The current research sought to examine three particular benefits (social responsibility, attitude toward oneself, and future intentions to volunteer) which might be experienced by the athletes themselves, and the particular circumstances under which the benefits may be experienced. Eight student-athletes from a large Division I-A institution were interviewed, some of whom had participated in social cause community service, and some of whom had participated in standard community service. The student-athletes who participated in social cause community service reported feelings of civic duty and social responsibility, and had formulated plans for future service beyond college. The student-athletes who participated in standard community service reported feelings of obligation toward service, and did not have clear plans for continued service upon graduation. Both groups felt positive about their experiences, and attributed positive feelings toward their own abilities after participating. The current case study suggests student-athletes feel these benefits to a larger degree if the community service is social cause oriented rather than promotional in nature. Future research could study this notion further, and examine the other sides of the benefits triad. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management, and Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Summer Semester, 2005. / April 13, 2005. / Student-Athletes Community Service College Athletics / Includes bibliographical references. / Jeffrey James, Professor Directing Thesis; Aubrey Kent, Committee Member; Michael Mondello, Committee Member.

The purpose of this study was to ascertain what role, if any, mentoring played in female sport management faculty's decision to pursue doctoral degrees and to investigate and identify factors related to successful transition through the doctoral program. A qualitative, descriptive-interpretive approach utilizing a cross case analysis of current female faculty in sport management was utilized in order to discover participants' subjective views regarding a specific experience or experiences in an effort to provide unique, relevant data (Anda, 2002). This methodology allowed for a greater understanding of the participants and their experiences, and permitted respondents to examine these factors from their own perspectives. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with eight participants dichotomized by race-four White and four Black Assistant Professors teaching in undergraduate and graduate programs at various types of Carnegie classified institutions. Seven major themes and six major personality traits and characteristics developed from verbatim transcriptions of the interviews. The seven themes included athletic involvement, career in athletics, career aspirations, pedagogy decision, influence of mentor, mentor roles, and context of mentoring. The six personality traits/characteristics related to success were athletic involvement, career in athletics, parental support, single with no dependents, competitive/confident, and vigilance/determination. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport and Recreation Management in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester, 2010. / April 9, 2010. / Mentoring, Doctoral, Higher Education, Sport Management, Qualitative / Includes bibliographical references. / Michael Mondello, Committee Chair; Susan Losh, University Representative; Andy Rudd, Committee Member; Robert A. Schwartz, Committee Member.