In today's competitive world of athletics it is not uncommon to discover a few athletes actively involved in some form of vision enhancement motivated by the promise that the exercises will improve their athletic performance. A review of past and present literature in the area of sports vision revealed that these athletes are performing exercises based upon a very weak scientific foundation. Most of the research investigating the relationship between vision and athletic performance has been plagued by flawed methodology, as well as extremely low numbers of subjects. The purpose of this study was to test for any relationship between vision and athletic performance. If it could be shown that a relationship exists between a particular visual attribute and a specific athletic skill, it would help establish the utility for using vision enhancement exercises to improve athletic performance. In the present study, four NCAA Division I athletic teams were tested on a battery of visual attributes prior to the start of their regular seasons. The athletic teams tested were Women's volleyball (N=14), Men's basketball (N=15), Women's basketball (N=12), and Men's baseball (N=27). Each athlete was tested on the following visual measures: visual acuity, contrast sensitivity, depth perception, choice reaction time, hand and eye dominance, and peripheral attention. A copy of each team's cumulative seasonal statistics was obtained and used as a measure of athletic ability. These statistics contained cumulative information on each individual player. Only the major players were selected for analysis. The selection of the "major" players was based on a ratio of participation for each sport. Data analyses were carried out separately for each sport. For all three sports the visual attribute of contrast sensitivity suffered from a lack of variance and was omitted from further analyses. A significant amount of variance was accounted for in only one seasonal statistic from the data for Women's volleyball. Choice reaction time and UFOV™ duration (a peripheral attention score) accounted for 79% of the variance for the volleyball statistic of digs per game. Examination of the data for the Men's and Women's basketball teams did not reveal any significant relationships. The analyses of the data from the Men's baseball team revealed a significant correlation between batting average and depth perception, as well as a marginal trend between batting average and choice reaction time. The present study improved over past research by employing a test of peripheral awareness. It was felt that the employment of this measurement was an improvement because peripheral awareness has been shown to be a better predictor of complex behavior compared to tests of peripheral perimetry used in past research. Two other ways in which the present study improved over past studies were by analyzing data from major players only and by investigating multiple visual attributes, sports, and athletic performance criteria. The present study could have been improved by employing an alternative method for measuring contrast sensitivity, by increasing the number of subjects analyzed for each sport and for each position within each sport, and by developing a test or battery of tests to measure specific athletic skills in the absence of environmental confounds such as player-position bias, opponents, and teammates.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of muscle fatigue after a treadmill versus cycle ergometer incremental test on postural balance indices and recovery time recreationally trained individuals. The Bruce Treadmill Test and the Incremental Cycle Ergometer test were used to induce fatigue. Each subject (N=16) performed both exercises, but the order of the exercises was randomized. The subjects performed balance measures on a Biodex Balance System via the Dynamic Balance Test at level 5 and indices were recorded as given. Balance was measured a total of nine times (pre-exercise, immediately post, and at 3, 6, 9, 12. 15, 18, and 21 minutes post). Immediately following the fatiguing treadmill test, balance increased significantly in the overall stability index (SI) and the anterior/posterior index (API). Immediately following the fatiguing cycle test, balance was not increased or decreased significantly in SI or API. Balance was not increased or decreased significantly for the medial/lateral index (MLI) for either exercise test at any time point. Post-hoc analysis found that the only significant difference (p = 0.05) between treadmill and cycle ergometer test was seen immediately following exercise for only SI and API indices. Additionally, there were no significant differences in the time to recovery, although subjects did tend to recovery quicker following the treadmill test (treadmill = 9 minutes, cycle = 12 minutes, p = 0.731). At 12-minutes post-exercise, all indices were below pre values, indicating fatiguing exercise has a positive effect on balance overtime. The results of this study indicate a general consistency with previous research, suggesting that any effects of fatigue on balance are seen immediately post-exercise and are diminished as time after exercise increases.

An important goal of exercise psychology is to identify factors that influence exercise adherence. More than half of Americans do not get the physical activity that doctors recommend for maintaining or improving a healthy lifestyle. Attentional focus during exercise has been identified as one casual factor with regard to exercise adherence. Attentional focus has traditionally oeen defined as associative or dissociative (Morgan & Pollock, 1977). Association implies that an exerciser's attention is focused on how his or her body is reacting to the exercise (such as sweating, muscle soreness, and breathing) or on things such as pace and split-times. Dissociation implies that one's focus is placed on things that are unrelated to the exercise, such as daydreaming, listening to music, or focusing on the environment. The purpose of the current study was to determine how both the Stages of Change model and the intensity level of the exercise bout affect attentional focus. A new six-category measure of attentional focus was used. A total of 145 undergraduate psychology students were divided into differing levels of expertise based on the Stages of Change model and assigned to run at a moderate and very hard intensity on two separate days; attentional focus was measured following each bout. All but one stage of change focused on bodily sensations significantly more at the very hard intensity; the pre-contemplation/contemplation stage focused on bodily sensations less at the very hard intensity. Regardless of level of expertise, focus on bodily sensations, selftalk, and task-relevant external cues significantly increased and focus on task-irrelevant thoughts and external distractions significantly decreased from the moderate to very hard intensity. Participants reported significantly greater perceived exertion, greater pain, and less enjoyment at the very hard compared to the moderate intensity. Implications for these findings are discussed.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect that varying cadence had on the ability of a submaximal cycle ergometry test to accurately predict peak oxygen uptake (VO2) using the standard YMCA protocol workloads. There has been limited scholarship investigating the effect that varying cadence has on trained cyclists and almost none on untrained participants. For this study twelve moderately healthy participants (age: 20.75 ± 1.87, body fat: 15.8 ± 4.91 %) who did not use cycling as part of their workout regime performed a peak VO2 cycle test and three randomized submaximal tests. The three submaximal tests followed the standard YMCA protocol except the cadence was increased to 70 rpm for one and 90 rpm for the other. Heart rate and RPE data were gathered every minute and upon completion of the submaximal tests, and a linear analysis was performed using age predicted maximal heart rate to estimate peak VO2 which was subsequently compared to measured VO2 peak obtained during maximal test to determine variability and error. Bland-Altman plot analysis revealed the standard YMCA protocol of 50-rpm underestimated 67.5% of the participant's predicted peak VO2 scores with large variability in all predictions with a standard deviation of 0.844 liters/minute. The 70-rpm protocol underestimated all predicted peak scores by an average of 19% with a standard deviation of 0.40 liters/minute. Just as the 50-rpm protocol, the 90-rpm protocol showed large variability with 75% of the predicted scores being underestimated and the standard deviation was 0.76 liters/minutes. This data demonstrates that varying cadence has a large effect on the ability of submaximal tests to accurately predict peak VO2 and further scholarship should be performed to determine other possible improvements in protocols to increase the validity and accuracy of submaximal tests.

Stretching has been a part of warm-up for a very long time. Some recent research has shown that stretching could possibly hinder performance and others have shown it enhances performance. The purpose of this study was to examine whether stretching has an effect on vertical jump, and if so, how long the effects last. Twenty Western Kentucky students (10 M and 10 F) performed three trials each. There was a non-stretching group, a pre-stretching group and a between-stretching group; each of the subjects performed all three. The stretching protocol included a static stretching routine of the gluteus maximus, hamstrings, quadriceps, and triceps surae. This stretching protocol lasted 7 minutes. The non-stretching group did not stretch, they performed two jump tests; the pre-stretching group stretched first and then performed the two jump tests; and the between-stretching group did the first jump test, stretched and performed the final jump test. Subjects were randomly selected for order of performance in each trial. Results showed a significant difference (p < 0.05) in pre-stretching group reaction time 1 versus reaction time 2 (p = 0.035) and a significant difference in the between-stretching group jump height 1 versus jump height 2 (p = 0.004). There were no other significant differences. This suggests that stretching hinders reaction time and the height of a vertical jump.

In spite of the well-known physical and psychological benefits of exercise roughly 50% of people who start an exercise program will have dropped out within six months. Therefore, it is important to examine the determinants of exercise adherence. Past research has shown that enjoyment is an essential factor in exercise adherence. Additionally, music has been shown to influence exercise enjoyment. The music and enjoyment literature has generally included most preferred and no music conditions, yet no one has considered a least preferred music condition. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to examine the effects of music preference and exercise intensity on exercise enjoyment and perceived exertion. Participants (N=200) began by completing a music preference questionnaire. Each participant was randomly assigned to one of three music preference conditions (most preferred, least preferred, or no music). Next, they were asked to walk/run on a treadmill at one of three randomly assigned exercise intensities (low, moderate, or high) for 20 min. Following the exercise, participants completed an exercise enjoyment scale and a music satisfaction scale. Participants completed a measure of attentional focus (AFQ) as a trait measure before the exercise and as a state measure following the exercise. Perceived exertion was measured using Borg's RPE scale at the 10 and 20- min mark. A 3 (Music Condition) X 3 (Exercise Intensity) ANCOVA was conducted on enjoyment levels. There were no significant main effects and no significant interactions for music or intensity. A 3 (Music Condition) X 3 (Exercise Intensity) ANCOVA conducted on RPE scores revealed a significant main effect for intensity, F(2, 166) = 99.60, p <.01, r| = .55. There was no main effect for the music conditions and no significant interaction. A one-way ANOVA conducted on the music satisfaction questionnaire was significant, F(l, 130) =67.56, p <.00, r| = .34, with those in the most preferred music condition reporting higher levels of satisfaction with music choice than those in the least preferred music condition. An exploratory analysis, a 3 (Music) X 3 (Intensity) ANOVA conducted on enjoyment using participants that had paid attention to the music revealed a significant main effect for music, F(l,86) = 4.18, p = .044, accounting for roughly 5% of the variance in exercise enjoyment. Results of the study indicated that music preference does matter, as long as one pays attention to the music. If one pays attention to the music being played during exercise, then that person will enjoy that exercise significantly more than if she is listening to music she likes compared to music she does not like. Music preference does not appear to affect one's perceived effort during exercise. Results also revealed that the higher intensity at which a person is exercising, the more effort she will feel like she has to put forth. The results of the current study question the financial worth of health exercise facilities making music individualized for their patrons. Individualized music stations will be beneficial only to those patrons who pay attention to the music.

The potential influence of aerobic fitness on RPE estimations during extended exercise bouts is not well understood. The current study compared RPE-Overall, RPE-Legs and RPE-Chest between fit (n=7) and unfit (n=6) males. Subjects completed a graded cycling test and then, in a counterbalanced order, on two separate days cycled for 60min (intensity~90% of the Onset of Blood Lactate Accumulation (OBLA) - determined via gas exchange indices) at 30}1 degrees Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT) and 18}1 degrees WBGT. Heart rate (HR), rectal temperature (Tree) and overall and differentiated RPE estimations were collected every 5 minutes. Repeated measures analyses of variance showed no significant differences (p>0.05) between groups for RPE-O, RPE-L, RPE-C. There were no significant differences between groups across time for HR or Tree. Similarly, there was no significance between - group differences for core temperature increase (Tree at 60min – Tree at 0 min) or absolute HR drift (HR at 60min- HR at 5min) within cool or hot cycling trials. This suggests fit and unfit males experienced similar relative cardiovascular and thermal strain. Results indicate that, between fit and unfit males cycling at similar individualized relative intensities, overall and differentiated RPE estimations are not influenced by aerobic fitness level during 60 minutes of exercise in 18 or 30 degrees WBGT.

Super Slow training was proposed by Ken Hutchins in a book entitled Super Slow: The Ultimate Exercise Protocol (1992). Since then Super Slow training has been proposed to improve strength more effectively than traditional resistance training and improve cardiovascular measures above aerobic exercise. However, whether this type of training is safe for the older, possibly hypertensive population to which it is being targeted is questionable. To help provide an answer to this question the purpose of this study was to measure blood pressure, heart rate (HR), and ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) while performing the Super Slow resistance training protocol (SS) and compare those measures to the "Gold Standard" slow resistance training protocol (GS). The elbow flexion and knee extension exercise were incorporated for this investigation. The subjects completed three separate testing sessions. Session 1 consisted of obtaining a 1 repetition maximum on the above mentioned exercises and a familiarization trial for SS. The SS trial consisted of three sets of each exercise. Each set consisted of a 10 second concentric phase and a 5 second eccentric phase. HR was monitored using an Acumen HR monitor (Acumen Inc., Sterling, VA). Blood pressure measurements were obtained using an Omron wrist blood pressure monitor (Omron Healthcare Inc., Vernon Hills, IL). Measurements were taken after set 1, 2, and 3 and 2 minutes post set 3. Measurements were also taken prior to set 2 and 3. RPE's differentiated to the active musculature were obtained three times per set. GS was administered in the same manner as SS with the exception of speed of movement, resistance, and number of repetitions accomplished. Each set during GS consisted of a 2 second concentric phase and a 4 second eccentric phase. Values were analyzed using repeated measures ANOVA for between and within group comparisons for HR, blood pressure, and RPE. When ANOVA indicated a significant difference, a Bonferroni post hoc procedure was used to detect specific differences between the variables in different trials. Results were considered significant at p < .05. The results showed systolic blood pressure was lower than the resting measurement during the elbow flexion exercise and higher than the resting measurement during the knee extension exercise within trials. Diastolic blood pressure did not change significantly within trials through either protocol. HR was greater during GS as compared to SS for both exercises. RPE was also greater during GS as compared to SS for both exercises. In conclusion, even though systolic blood pressure was greater within SS and GS, a comparison of these protocols showed minimal differences in BP responses suggesting either would be appropriate for the individual to whom strength training is not contraindicated. This assumption is also considering these same results would be seen in the hypertensive populations. However, it should be individualized because different people have differing blood pressure responses. Also, consideration should be given to resistance because of the greater HR and RPE response elicited by GS.

The present study examined the effects of punishment given to the most valued team member who has committed a company rule violation. The team is working on an important project where the contribution by that valued member is critical to project completion. The study assessed the effects of the severity of rule violation, the severity of the punishment, the consistency of the punishment, and who is impacted by the punishment. The results indicated that when a valued employee has committed a rule violation, applying consistent punishment is perceived as more fair and appropriate by the teammates. However, when that valued employee receives the punishment is also important. Punishment that removes the valued employee from the team and inhibits completion of important team projects is not perceived as fair or appropriate. The participants viewed the implementation of punishment for the valued employee more fair when the punishment was applied after the completion of a team project, allowing contribution by the most valued team member for the duration of the project. The punishment was more likely to deter future violations when the punishment matched the severity of the violation.

Intrinsic motivation has been shown to be a very important factor in exercise adherence. Research has found that factors such as exercise intensity, social feedback, goal orientation and perceived climate can affect intrinsic motivation. The purpose of this study was to assess situational goal orientation, specifically whether individuals in a task induced condition or ego induced condition would report different levels of intrinsic motivation (i.e., enjoyment, tension, effort and competence during exercise). Participants (N= 114) rode on an exercise bike for 24 minutes at a moderate intensity. A MANCOVA factorial design was used to examine differences in intrinsic motivation. The results of the study did not reveal any significant differences in the level of enjoyment, tension, effort and competence between the task and ego-oriented conditions. However, there were significant differences for outcome feedback (win vs. lose) for competence and tension as well as a significant interaction between goal orientation and outcome feedback for the dependent variable competence. Ego oriented individuals who won in the race function reported significantly higher levels of competence than ego oriented individuals who lost in the race function. Other results and limitations of the study are discussed.