This project proposes ideas for a Natural Capital Centre in downtown Squamish. The District of Squamish and Ecotrust have stated that the Centre will serve as a tangible demonstration of the town’s commitment to sustainable thought and action, including interpretive information related to the proposed windfarm on Alice Ridge. Squamish has a reputation for being a very windy place. It is a word adapted from Sko-mish, the name of the native nation who first occupied the territory and has a general meaning of ‘strong wind’, or ‘birthplace of the winds.’ The design solution for the NCC aims to tie these two ideas together, demonstrating a strong commitment to sustainabilty and reinforcing the identity of Squamish as the “birthplace of the great winds.” The project framework explores the relationship between renewable energy and people- how people understand and experience natural forces of place, and the relationship between renewable energy and place- how local wind data may be translated into architectural design. The proposed design interventions range from the fundamental organization of the site to small-scale detailing of the sensory experience of the wind. The intent is to inspire a mulititude of other ways to integrate the Squamish winds in future developments that strengthen a ‘sense of place’ in downtown Squamish.

This project proposes ideas for a Natural Capital Centre in downtown Squamish. The District of Squamish and Ecotrust have stated that the Centre will serve as a tangible demonstration of the town’s commitment to sustainable thought and action, including interpretive information related to the proposed windfarm on Alice Ridge. Squamish has a reputation for being a very windy place. It is a word adapted from Sko-mish, the name of the native nation who first occupied the territory and has a general meaning of ‘strong wind’, or ‘birthplace of the winds.’ The design solution for the NCC aims to tie these two ideas together, demonstrating a strong commitment to sustainabilty and reinforcing the identity of Squamish as the “birthplace of the great winds.” The project framework explores the relationship between renewable energy and people- how people understand and experience natural forces of place, and the relationship between renewable energy and place- how local wind data may be translated into architectural design. The proposed design interventions range from the fundamental organization of the site to small-scale detailing of the sensory experience of the wind. The intent is to inspire a mulititude of other ways to integrate the Squamish winds in future developments that strengthen a ‘sense of place’ in downtown Squamish.

During the past five years the Squamish valley has been the center of attention of a large amount of public interest. The extension of the Pacific Great Eastern Railway from the village of Squamish to Vancouver has been the cause of much of this public interest. The tremendous recreational potential of the beautifully scenic alpine country north of Squamish in Garibaldi Park has been brought most vividly to the fore. Partly as a result of this the provincial government began construction of a modern highway to the Squamish area, which in spite of much political debate, had hitherto been completely without a road connection of any kind. Principally because of road and rail being extended to Squamish, politicians, financiers and industrialists have expressed the opinion that the vast expanse of vacant land of the Squamish river delta could be developed for industrial purposes. Some people have even suggested that a great sea port could be developed with the rugged and scenic valley providing the land for associated community areas. This thesis is a study of the Squamish valley with respect to the probability of this development occurring. Insofar as industrial development as a sea port is concerned the extent to which the area can develop seems to depend largely on a matter of timing. Not by coincidence but because the port facilities of metropolitan Vancouver are rapidly becoming overtaxed, several proposals are being aired each of which seeks to develop further port facilities and land adjacent to Vancouver. Such land at Squamish would be competitive with that in these other proposed areas, but since Squamish is geographically separated from Vancouver it has some basic disadvantages. Conversely, however, due to the fact that the provincial government controls vast tracts of land at Squamish, port development on these lands may be fairly readily accomplished. Squamish seems destined to expand fairly rapidly regardless of its industrial future. Its rate and ultimate pattern of development, however, will largely be determined by the extent of industrialization. Since some form of growth is immediately eminent and particularly since the valley must be protected from flood-waters, regional development planning is direly needed. Because the prospects for industrial development are somewhat dependent on the nature of other local growth a regional plan is proposed which will ensure adequate industrial land at the waterfront. / Arts, Faculty of / Geography, Department of / Graduate

An analysis of the literature on sustainability reveals that community decision making is an important component in the definition and implementation of sustainability. Although the importance of participation by all members of a community is stressed in the literature, analysis of marginalized groups focuses mainly on class and culture. When gender lines are explored, it is mostly within the context of the developing world. The purpose of this research was to examine the nature of women's participation in defining and implementing sustainability. This exploration had three objectives: to define effective public participation in the context of local level environmental decision making, to identify barriers to women inherent in public participation processes associated with environmental planning decisions and to make recommendations which eliminate barriers to women's participation in planning decisions. Barriers to women's participation were divided into three categories: institutional, community and societal. This research used a case study approach with multiple sources of evidence to examine these barriers. The public participation process involved in developing the Squamish Estuary Management Plan was analyzed to explore the nature and extent of women's participation. Research methods included document and newspaper coverage analysis, interviews and workshops. These revealed that specific barriers exist which discourage and prevent women from participating in planning decisions. At an institutional level, these included lack of trust, centralized decision-making, poor communication structures, an atmosphere that was not childfriendly and the failure to present the Plan in a way which was relevant to women's lives. Community barriers consisted of the fear of retaliation and the large number of community issues. Societal barriers identified were the devaluing of women's voices, level of income and the restrictions caused by women's societal roles. These barriers reduced the effectiveness of the public participation process. Results were used to develop a series of recommendations about how to encourage women's participation in decision-making, ensuring that women in communities are involved in shaping and defining sustainability.

An analysis of the literature on sustainability reveals that community decision making is an important component in the definition and implementation of sustainability. Although the importance of participation by all members of a community is stressed in the literature, analysis of marginalized groups focuses mainly on class and culture. When gender lines are explored, it is mostly within the context of the developing world. The purpose of this research was to examine the nature of women's participation in defining and implementing sustainability. This exploration had three objectives: to define effective public participation in the context of local level environmental decision making, to identify barriers to women inherent in public participation processes associated with environmental planning decisions and to make recommendations which eliminate barriers to women's participation in planning decisions. Barriers to women's participation were divided into three categories: institutional, community and societal. This research used a case study approach with multiple sources of evidence to examine these barriers. The public participation process involved in developing the Squamish Estuary Management Plan was analyzed to explore the nature and extent of women's participation. Research methods included document and newspaper coverage analysis, interviews and workshops. These revealed that specific barriers exist which discourage and prevent women from participating in planning decisions. At an institutional level, these included lack of trust, centralized decision-making, poor communication structures, an atmosphere that was not childfriendly and the failure to present the Plan in a way which was relevant to women's lives. Community barriers consisted of the fear of retaliation and the large number of community issues. Societal barriers identified were the devaluing of women's voices, level of income and the restrictions caused by women's societal roles. These barriers reduced the effectiveness of the public participation process. Results were used to develop a series of recommendations about how to encourage women's participation in decision-making, ensuring that women in communities are involved in shaping and defining sustainability. / Arts, Faculty of / Geography, Department of / Graduate

Fritillaria camschatcensis L. Ker Gawl (Liliaceae), is a herbaceous flowering plant that grows in estuarine and subalpine habitats within its range from the northern limit in Alaska to its southern limit in western Oregon. This plant holds cultural significance in the Pacific Northwest as an important root vegetable that was cultivated in estuarine root gardens by many Indigenous Peoples. The bulbs of F. camschatcensis offered an important source of carbohydrates to a traditional diet that was high in protein, fats, oils and fibre. Lhásem is the Squamish name for F. camschatcensis, commonly known as northern riceroot, or chocolate lily. The Squamish Nation is very interested in restoring traditional plant foods into the community along with the traditional knowledge linked to them. Lhásem is a plant that many Squamish people were interested in learning about, thus it was an excellent candidate for ethnoecological restoration. Ethnoecological restoration brings cultural context, practices and technologies together with contemporary ecological restoration approaches and offers culturally relevant ways to restore a plant to the landscape. The east side of the Squamish Estuary, which borders the town of Squamish, has been impacted by a range of human-disturbances over the past century including: draining for agriculture, redirection of the Squamish River, dredging and the presence of industrial sites in close proximity to the estuary. All of these impacts have likely contributed to the decline of lhásem populations on the east side of the estuary. Through an ecological survey of the east and west sides of the Squamish Estuary I determined that the populations of F. camchatcensis are present and thriving on the west bank of the Squamish River. I collected vegetation and abiotic data and found that salinity is the most important abiotic factor affecting lhásem habitat. A logistic regression showed that salinity and the presence of lhásem are negatively correlated. Results of the vegetation data analysis indicated that Maianthemum dilatatum was an indicator for where lhásem is found growing on the west side of the Squamish Estuary and Aster subspicatus was the indicator for lhásem on the east. Lhásem restoration gardens were planted to explore the growth within one growing season across two restoration treatments, terrestrial sites and estuarine sites. The results indicate that terrestrial garden sites were more successful than estuarine garden sites and that whole bulbs were more successful than bulblets in the first year of growth. Through community interviews with elders, adults and youth, I documented the contemporary interests in the restoration of lhásem and found that the major interest of the community was focused on health, traditional food revitalization and knowledge renewal. I facilitated educational events in which Squamish Nation youth and community members learned about the plant and how to manage it in the Squamish Estuary gardens. Overall this research provides information for the future restoration of lhásem in the Squamish Estuary as well as a template to restore other culturally important plants. / Graduate

The autecology of the estuarine alga, Blidingia minima var. subsalsa (Kjellman) Scagel (Chlorophyceae) was considered with regard to its growth, reproduction and distribution. Studies were conducted on the Squamish River estuary, British Columbia, from May 1974 to July 1975 and in the laboratory from January to August 1975. The major environmental factors considered were light, temperature, salinity, nutrients and desiccation. The alga occurred on the Squamish River delta in the upper intertidal zone. Biomass, as estimated by percent cover, increased in the period March to early May, then remained stable or decreased during spring runoff in May and June, finally increasing to a maximum in August. Increases in percent cover were associated with brackish salinity, high light intensity, high air temperature, considerable desiccation, an absence of algal competitors and possibly favourable ion ratios. The three factors investigated in the laboratory (temperature, salinity and nutrients) interacted in their effect on net photosynthesis. Reproduction in the laboratory occurred by release of quadri-flagellate and isomorphic biflagellate swarmers. Some biflagellate swarmers fused and germinated, producing isomorphic plants. The period of swarmer release was from January to early May. The alga was perennial but during the winter only its prostrate basal disc was present. Maximum vertical distribution was from 1.5 to 4.0 m above chart datum (lowest low water). Maximum percent cover occurred at ca. 3.25 m. The upper limit appeared to be associated with unfavourable osmotic conditions, e.g. rain or desiccation, and the lower limit with low light intensities. Horizontal distribution was limited by absence of salt water on the freshwater side and competition from Fucus distichus subsp. edentatus (De la Pylaie) Powell on the marine side of the estuary. Blidingia minima var. subsalsa1s geographical and habitat distribution was also examined by reference to literature reports and herbarium collections. The species is cosmopolitan, occurring in every ocean except the Indian and Antarctic with most reports from polar and temperate regions. The variety occurs in brackish, marine and freshwater habitats. / Science, Faculty of / Botany, Department of / Graduate

Benthic algal ecology and primary pathways of energy flow were considered on the Squamish River delta at the head of Howe Sound, a fjord-type estuary. The study elucidated the structure and function of major autotrophic components of the estuarine ecosystem. Benthic algae were investigated with regard to species composition and distribution and the capacity for energy conversion, input to the system and storage. Comparisons were made with existing information on the vascular plant component of the ecosystem. The benthic algal community was studied by regular field sampling of major macroalgae and microalgal associations with a monitoring of physical-chemical environmental factors. Presence of an alga in the estuary was a function of its osmoregulatory capabilities. Establishment and temporal-spatial distribution patterns were controlled by substrate-habitat preference and availability and the interaction of light, interspecies competition, desiccation, temperature and salinity, light being of greatest importance. Carex lyngbyei Hornem., the dominant vascular plant, had a significant effect on distribution of benthic algae through light restriction during Its summer growth period and action as a substrate during the winter. Total species diversity, biomass and distributional area of benthic algae were greatest at the latter period. The effect of ecosystem structure on function was investigated by analysis of energy flux through major benthic algal producers. Comparisons were made of the total amount of energy input attributable to benthic algae and vascular plants. The importance of an algal producer to energy flux•m⁻² was a function of either high primary productivity, photosynthetic efficiency and caloric content, or in the case of diatom dominated micro-algal associations, high caloric content alone. Distribution, reflecting the presence of suitable substrate-habitat, modified this pattern. Macroalgae having high energy input•m⁻² (Monoetroma oxyapermum (Kutz.) Doty, Pylaiella littoral-is (Lyngb.) Kjell.) were of minimum importance to total energy input. Two microalgal associations (Association E, diatom dominated, Association G, Ulothrix flaoca (Dill.) Thur. dominated), each with low energy input-m but with wide distribution and high photosynthetic efficiency and caloric content contributed a total of 8H% of available energy attributable to benthic algae. Benthic algae account for a maximum of ca. 7% of total energy input to the delta ecosystem compared to ca. 90$ by vascular plants and 3% by addition of organic matter. The majority of energy for the detrital based ecosystem comes from vascular plants and becomes available after a lag period allowing decomposition. Benthic algae are significant to the ecosystem as a readily available, continually present energy source requiring little or no breakdown for utilization and not for total energy input. Energy is available as either dissolved or particulate organic matter. Of the latter, ca. 49$ is removed to the estuary, 33% incorporated into the sediments of the delta and 18$ used by consumers in the delta ecosystem. / Science, Faculty of / Botany, Department of / Graduate

This dissertation is an investigation of the stress system of Squamish (Skwxwú7mesh), one of ten languages that make up the Central division of the Northwest Coast branch of Salishan, a linguistic group indigenous to the Pacific Northwest region of North America. Although other researchers have previously investigated aspects of stress in the language, this work provides the first integrated account of the Squamish stress system as a whole, couched in an Optimality Theoretic framework. The first two chapters are introductory, with Chapter 1 supplying a contextual background for the undertaking within linguistics, and especially within Salishan linguistices, while Chapter 2 provides a thorough grounding in the phonology and phonemics of Squamish in particular. Chapter 3 begins the formal analysis of stress in Squamish by examining the way stress surfaces in free root morphemes,which tend to stress penultimate syllables whenever they contain either a full vowel or a schwa followed by a resonant consonant. Given this outcome, Chapter 4 continues the investigation of basic stress patterns by looking more closely at the interactive roles of schwa, sonority, weight and the structure of syllables and feet in Squamish stress assignment. With the basic stress pattern established, the remaining chapters look at the outcome of stress in morphologically complex Squamish words. Thus, Chapter 5 is an analysis of stress in words involving prefixation, especially those resulting from CVC and CV prefixal reduplication, since non-reduplicative prefixes are unstressable; and Chapters 6 and 7 investigate the occurrence of stress in polymorphemic words resulting from the addition of lexical suffixes and grammatical suffixes, respectively. While stress in roots is generally predictable on the basis of phonological factors alone, that in polymorphemic words may also be influenced by morphological factors, as when a root or suffix has underlying lexical accent, and such factors then take precedence ofer phonological factors. In addition, prosodic domains play an important and interactive work.

Community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) related to protected areas (PAs) originated in the 1980’s in Zimbabwe, Africa, in the buffer zone communities of Africa’s National Parks. CBNRM attempted to address the problems associated with colonial, protectionist style ‘fence and guns’ conservation management approaches, which excluded resource-based communities from conservation areas. CBNRM attempts to meet the biodiversity conservation objectives of conservation areas, and the sustainable development and livelihood objectives of neighbouring communities. While CBNRM initiatives have been well documented internationally over the past decades, little is known about the status of CBNRM within Canada. In order to bridge this knowledge gap and to link trends in conservation and protected areas management internationally to Canada and to British Columbia (BC), this thesis examines the potential for community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) affiliated with BC's Protected Area System. “Potential” is determined by comparing the situation in BC to the international CBNRM experience. The study draws on a sample of Conservancies from the categories of the BC Protected Area (PA) System, focusing particularly on the nine Sea-to-Sky Land and Resource Management Plan (LRMP) Area Conservancies and neighbouring First Nations communities: Squamish, L’il’wat and In-SHUCK-ch. Information has been obtained through interviews (guided by semi-structured questionnaires) conducted with BC government informants and First Nations representatives, supplemented by key documents. The questionnaire examined the potential for CBNRM according to a.) the community's perspective: potential (costs and) benefits of the protected area, including goods and services, cultural and social benefits and sustainable economic development opportunities provided by the protected area; and benefits of community involvement in natural resource management and protected area governance; and b.) the conservation perspective: benefits through community cooperation in biodiversity conservation within the targeted protected area. Other factors that have been identified through the international experience to affect CBNRM initiatives, such as use regulation; tenure; policies and legislation; awareness of and support for the protected area; and community capacity were thoroughly examined across all sources of information. This study finds that there is potential for CBNRM affiliated with the BC PA system in protected area designations such as ‘Conservancies’. Potential relates to the role of CBNRM in biodiversity conservation, meeting the aspirations of BC’s First Nations communities, and in recognizing First Nations as legitimate stakeholders in protected areas and conservation management. As in the international experience, numerous social, political, economic and other factors present opportunities and challenges to the adoption of CBNRM in BC. This thesis concludes with key recommendations for protected areas and conservation management in BC and Canada and identifies opportunities to further explore key topic areas that arose from the research findings.