No description available.

The aim of this study was to examine associations between biases in decision-making (delay discounting [DD], opportunity cost neglect [OCN], status quo bias [SQB]), educational attainment, and use of cigarettes and other tobacco and nicotine delivery products among women of reproductive age. Women of reproductive age are of special interest because of the additional risks that cigarette smoking or use of these other products represents should they become pregnant. Data were collected anonymously online in survey format using Amazon Mechanical Turk [AMT]. Participants were 800 women of reproductive age (24-44 years) from across the US. Half (n = 400) were smokers who reported current, daily smoking and half (n = 400) were never smokers who reported smoking less than 100 cigarettes in their lifetime. Participants reported smoking characteristics, plans to quit smoking, use of nicotine replacement therapies, use of other tobacco and nicotine delivery products, alcohol and drug use histories, and the Fagerström Test for Nicotine Dependence. Participants completed two measures for each of the three biases in decision-making, the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale [BIS-11], and two scales measuring short- and long-term propensity to plan for money expenditures [PPMS and PPML]. Educational attainment analyses compared three education groups: high school or less vs. some college (e.g. some college/A.A.) vs. B.A. or higher. DD was steeper among current vs. never smokers and for women with lower vs. higher levels of education, with no significant interaction between smoking and education. Modifying the instructions of the DD measure to make the zero option explicit reduced DD similarly across levels of smoking status and education. OCN was worse at lower vs. higher educational attainment on one OCN measure, with no significant effect of smoking status or interaction between opportunity cost neglect and educational attainment on either measure. No evidence was found for stronger SQB by smoking status or education. Smoking status was related to BIS Total, BIS Motor and Nonplanning subscales and to PPML in initial models but remained significant after adjusting for baseline differences in participant characteristics only for BIS Motor subscale and educational attainment was related only to BIS Nonplanning subscale. Preliminary comparisons of e-cigarette users to non-users suggest smokers using e-cigarettes only differ from smokers not using e-cigarettes on measures related to quitting smoking whereas within never smokers e-cigarette users demonstrated a pattern of riskier decision-making compared to non-users. Results confirm that DD and education are important to understanding the use of tobacco and nicotine products in women of reproductive age, and suggest that smoking and educational attainment are independently related to discounting rates. The observed explicit-zero framing effect suggests making alternatives more explicit when presenting choices may help reduce DD and lead to better decision-making, which has possible treatment implications. Results identify OCN as an additional decision-making bias to consider in understanding how low educational attainment might relate to smoking vulnerabilities. The preliminary examination of e-cigarette use suggests for women of reproductive age above age 24 years, e-cigarette use among current smokers may reflect desire or attempts to quit or cut back on smoking whereas e-cigarette use among non-smokers may be a marker of a more impulsive, riskier repertoire, although additional study of this question is needed.

Die Umsetzung theoretisch fundierter Besteuerungsprinzipien in die Praxis hat seit längerer Zeit einen prominenten Platz in der finanzwissenschaftlichen Forschung. Dabei besteht kein Zweifel, dass es ein größeres Interesse daran gibt, nicht nur theoretisch fundierte Prinzipien abzuleiten, sondern diese auch auf ihre Anwendbarkeit zu prüfen. Dieses Interesse an der optimalen Ausgestaltung eines Steuersystems in der Praxis wurde mit dem Zusammenbruch der sozialistischen Planwirtschaften in den 1990er Jahren nochmals verstärkt. Im Rahmen dieser umfassenden Transformationsprozesse ist es unabdingbar, dass die Wirtschaftsentwicklung über ein leistungsfähiges Steuersystem finanziert wird. Die zu erhebenden Steuern haben einen unmittelbaren Einfluss auf die ökonomischen Entscheidungen wie beispielsweise in Form eines Konsumverzichts. Darüber hinaus entstehen Zusatzlasten der Besteuerung (excess burden), wenn vergleichbare ökonomische Aktivitäten unterschiedlich besteuert werden und damit etwa der Konsum bestimmter Güter, eine bestimmte Investitionsart oder der Einsatz eines bestimmten Produktionsfaktors diskriminiert wird. Aus den Substitutionseffekten, die durch die Veränderungen der relativen Preise hervorgerufen werden, resultieren letztendlich über die Zahllast hinausgehende Nutzenverluste bei den Wirtschaftssubjekten. Dadurch werden die ökonomischen Konsum-/Sparentscheidungen verzerrt (Besteuerung der Kapitaleinkommen), das Leistungsangebot vermindert (Besteuerung der Arbeitseinkommen), Produktionsfaktoren umgelenkt oder Investitions- und Finanzierungsentscheidungen verzerrt (Unternehmenssteuer). Somit kann durch Steuern bzw. durch ihre unangemessene Ausgestaltung ein gesamtwirtschaftlicher Effizienzverlust verursacht werden. Gerade in Transformationsländern wie Georgien war mit Beginn der Transformationsphase de facto kein steuerpolitisches Know-how vorhanden, so dass eine enorme Nachfrage nach Beratung bestand und letztendlich der größte Teil der verabschiedeten Steuerreformen ein Ergebnis externer Beratung war. Ein erstes Ziel der Arbeit ist die Erstellung einer theoretischen Basis, um die einzelnen Steuerreformphasen besser zu verstehen. Ein zweites Ziel liegt in die Ableitung eines theoretisch fundierten Referenzrahmens (Benchmark) für die Beurteilung des Status quo sowie der Ausgestaltung der Einkommens- und Gewinnbesteuerung in Georgien. Die Ableitung von Benchmarks gilt dabei als ein eigenständiges Ziel wissenschaftlicher Forschung. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit dienen die Benchmarks jedoch als Beurteilungsmaßstab für die Evaluation der Steuerreformen in Georgien sowie für die Evaluation des hier erarbeiteten konkreten Reformvorschlags. Ein drittes Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit ist also in der konzeptionellen Ausgestaltung der Einkommens- und Gewinnbesteuerung in Georgien und deren konsequenten Ausrichtung an einem international anerkannten lebenszeitlichen bzw. konsumorientierten Leitbild der Besteuerung zu sehen. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurde ein Entwurf für eine integrierte Einkommens- und Gewinnsteuer (Einfachsteuer) entwickelt, der den lokalen gesellschaftlichen Gegebenheiten optimal angepasst ist. Bei der Ausarbeitung eines entsprechenden Konzeptes für Georgien war zu berücksichtigen, dass die Effizienz reduzierenden Allokationsverzerrungen in diesen Systemen minimiert und die Belastung der Löhne und Gewinne durch Steuern auf ein angemessenes Niveau begrenzt werden sollten, um negative Anreizwirkungen in Bezug auf das Wirtschaftswachstum so gering wie möglich zu halten. Neben einer integrierten Einkommens- und Gewinnbesteuerung spielten dabei eine einheitliche Gewinnermittlung für Unternehmen (modifiziertes Kassenprinzip) sowie eine am Kassenprinzip orientierte Mehrwertsteuer eine besondere Rolle. Einkommen- und Mehrwertsteuerentwürfe erfüllen alle Neutralitätskriterien (Neutralität der intertemporalen Konsum- und Ersparnisbildung, Rechtsformneutralität, Investitionsneutralität in Bezug auf Human- und Sachkapital, Finanzierungsneutralität sowie Inflationsneutralität). Nach der Definition der Bemessungsgrundlagen für die Einzelsteuern und deren Anpassung an georgische Gegebenheiten war es notwendig, die technischen Einzelheiten für die Steuerverwaltung (Durchführungsverordnungen) und teilweise die zugehörigen Steuerformulare zu entwickeln. Diese müssen alle notwendigen Variablen der Veranlagungsverfahren erfassen und eindeutige Identifikationsmöglichkeiten für die Haushalte und Unternehmen bieten, was eine wichtige Rolle für die spätere Mikrosimulation spielt. Die gewonnenen Erkenntnisse dieser Arbeit sollen die politischen Entscheidungsträger bei der Auswahl eines geeigneten Reformvorschlages für das Einkommensteuergesetz unterstützen. / An efficient tax system is essential for the functioning of a market economy. The implementation of an effective tax system will help the countries in transition to build a sustainable market economy and achieve prosperity. After 90 years of soviet hegemony large economic, political and social changes were made in former Soviet Union countries to support the transformation process. A key role in the reform agenda is given to public finances, especially tax reform. During the last decade severa researches and recommendations have been made in scientific literature regarding a consumption based tax reform. The advantages of a consumption based tax system are based on the elimination of ineffective elements existing in the traditional tax system of Western countries and on the reduction of incorrect allocation effects of resources provoked by it. Income taxes distort the spend/save decision, leading taxpayers to prefer current over future consumption. Consumption taxes are thought not to have this effect. This suggests that a consumption based tax system is closer to the policy makers' notion of a fair and efficient system of capital income taxation and, hence, probably a better candidate for a tax reform in transformation countries than competing reform strategies. Stable economic growth is the essential basis for a country's successful transformation to a market economy. According to the varieties of taxes and their administration, Georgia more or less adopted the tax systems existing in Western countries. It becomes obvious that the chance of developing a rational, sustainable and adjusted tax system for transition countries was missed. A good portion of the tax reform process in Georgia has been carried out without an explicit evaluation of how well the different proposals would perform against standard objectives including revenue performance, economic neutrality, tax burden distribution, simplicity and administrative feasibility. Short-changing the preparation stage inevitably led to a continuous ad hoc patching of the system, creating confusion among tax administrators and taxpayers alike and creating uncertainty for domestic and national investors. The analysis of the tax reform are based on these basic criteria, according to which some taxes are especially deemed to be more expedient in a democratic and legal state. The following corresponds with the concept of an adequate tax system for a market economy: correspondence with the market economy's conditions, free of inflation effects, easily to administer and fair taxation. Especially for Georgia, a tax system is desirable, which will work successfully by taking into consideration the small resources of taxpayers and the administration. Some major distortionary effects of the Georgian income tax system can be easily replaced through minor reforms, which would turn it into a consumption-based income tax system. Unfortunately, the public discussion of the Georgian tax system has a rather different focus. As economists, we must keep in mind that taxpayers ask for low taxes (for themselves) but they do not care about neutral taxes. A neutral tax system is a typical public good. Apart from some strange economists, nobody will miss it. But society pays a price for a non-neutral tax system in form of less growth and a distorted industry structure.

Die Umsetzung theoretisch fundierter Besteuerungsprinzipien in die Praxis hat seit längerer Zeit einen prominenten Platz in der finanzwissenschaftlichen Forschung. Dabei besteht kein Zweifel, dass es ein größeres Interesse daran gibt, nicht nur theoretisch fundierte Prinzipien abzuleiten, sondern diese auch auf ihre Anwendbarkeit zu prüfen. Dieses Interesse an der optimalen Ausgestaltung eines Steuersystems in der Praxis wurde mit dem Zusammenbruch der sozialistischen Planwirtschaften in den 1990er Jahren nochmals verstärkt. Im Rahmen dieser umfassenden Transformationsprozesse ist es unabdingbar, dass die Wirtschaftsentwicklung über ein leistungsfähiges Steuersystem finanziert wird. Die zu erhebenden Steuern haben einen unmittelbaren Einfluss auf die ökonomischen Entscheidungen wie beispielsweise in Form eines Konsumverzichts. Darüber hinaus entstehen Zusatzlasten der Besteuerung (excess burden), wenn vergleichbare ökonomische Aktivitäten unterschiedlich besteuert werden und damit etwa der Konsum bestimmter Güter, eine bestimmte Investitionsart oder der Einsatz eines bestimmten Produktionsfaktors diskriminiert wird. Aus den Substitutionseffekten, die durch die Veränderungen der relativen Preise hervorgerufen werden, resultieren letztendlich über die Zahllast hinausgehende Nutzenverluste bei den Wirtschaftssubjekten. Dadurch werden die ökonomischen Konsum-/Sparentscheidungen verzerrt (Besteuerung der Kapitaleinkommen), das Leistungsangebot vermindert (Besteuerung der Arbeitseinkommen), Produktionsfaktoren umgelenkt oder Investitions- und Finanzierungsentscheidungen verzerrt (Unternehmenssteuer). Somit kann durch Steuern bzw. durch ihre unangemessene Ausgestaltung ein gesamtwirtschaftlicher Effizienzverlust verursacht werden. Gerade in Transformationsländern wie Georgien war mit Beginn der Transformationsphase de facto kein steuerpolitisches Know-how vorhanden, so dass eine enorme Nachfrage nach Beratung bestand und letztendlich der größte Teil der verabschiedeten Steuerreformen ein Ergebnis externer Beratung war. Ein erstes Ziel der Arbeit ist die Erstellung einer theoretischen Basis, um die einzelnen Steuerreformphasen besser zu verstehen. Ein zweites Ziel liegt in die Ableitung eines theoretisch fundierten Referenzrahmens (Benchmark) für die Beurteilung des Status quo sowie der Ausgestaltung der Einkommens- und Gewinnbesteuerung in Georgien. Die Ableitung von Benchmarks gilt dabei als ein eigenständiges Ziel wissenschaftlicher Forschung. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit dienen die Benchmarks jedoch als Beurteilungsmaßstab für die Evaluation der Steuerreformen in Georgien sowie für die Evaluation des hier erarbeiteten konkreten Reformvorschlags. Ein drittes Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit ist also in der konzeptionellen Ausgestaltung der Einkommens- und Gewinnbesteuerung in Georgien und deren konsequenten Ausrichtung an einem international anerkannten lebenszeitlichen bzw. konsumorientierten Leitbild der Besteuerung zu sehen. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurde ein Entwurf für eine integrierte Einkommens- und Gewinnsteuer (Einfachsteuer) entwickelt, der den lokalen gesellschaftlichen Gegebenheiten optimal angepasst ist. Bei der Ausarbeitung eines entsprechenden Konzeptes für Georgien war zu berücksichtigen, dass die Effizienz reduzierenden Allokationsverzerrungen in diesen Systemen minimiert und die Belastung der Löhne und Gewinne durch Steuern auf ein angemessenes Niveau begrenzt werden sollten, um negative Anreizwirkungen in Bezug auf das Wirtschaftswachstum so gering wie möglich zu halten. Neben einer integrierten Einkommens- und Gewinnbesteuerung spielten dabei eine einheitliche Gewinnermittlung für Unternehmen (modifiziertes Kassenprinzip) sowie eine am Kassenprinzip orientierte Mehrwertsteuer eine besondere Rolle. Einkommen- und Mehrwertsteuerentwürfe erfüllen alle Neutralitätskriterien (Neutralität der intertemporalen Konsum- und Ersparnisbildung, Rechtsformneutralität, Investitionsneutralität in Bezug auf Human- und Sachkapital, Finanzierungsneutralität sowie Inflationsneutralität). Nach der Definition der Bemessungsgrundlagen für die Einzelsteuern und deren Anpassung an georgische Gegebenheiten war es notwendig, die technischen Einzelheiten für die Steuerverwaltung (Durchführungsverordnungen) und teilweise die zugehörigen Steuerformulare zu entwickeln. Diese müssen alle notwendigen Variablen der Veranlagungsverfahren erfassen und eindeutige Identifikationsmöglichkeiten für die Haushalte und Unternehmen bieten, was eine wichtige Rolle für die spätere Mikrosimulation spielt. Die gewonnenen Erkenntnisse dieser Arbeit sollen die politischen Entscheidungsträger bei der Auswahl eines geeigneten Reformvorschlages für das Einkommensteuergesetz unterstützen. / An efficient tax system is essential for the functioning of a market economy. The implementation of an effective tax system will help the countries in transition to build a sustainable market economy and achieve prosperity. After 90 years of soviet hegemony large economic, political and social changes were made in former Soviet Union countries to support the transformation process. A key role in the reform agenda is given to public finances, especially tax reform. During the last decade severa researches and recommendations have been made in scientific literature regarding a consumption based tax reform. The advantages of a consumption based tax system are based on the elimination of ineffective elements existing in the traditional tax system of Western countries and on the reduction of incorrect allocation effects of resources provoked by it. Income taxes distort the spend/save decision, leading taxpayers to prefer current over future consumption. Consumption taxes are thought not to have this effect. This suggests that a consumption based tax system is closer to the policy makers' notion of a fair and efficient system of capital income taxation and, hence, probably a better candidate for a tax reform in transformation countries than competing reform strategies. Stable economic growth is the essential basis for a country's successful transformation to a market economy. According to the varieties of taxes and their administration, Georgia more or less adopted the tax systems existing in Western countries. It becomes obvious that the chance of developing a rational, sustainable and adjusted tax system for transition countries was missed. A good portion of the tax reform process in Georgia has been carried out without an explicit evaluation of how well the different proposals would perform against standard objectives including revenue performance, economic neutrality, tax burden distribution, simplicity and administrative feasibility. Short-changing the preparation stage inevitably led to a continuous ad hoc patching of the system, creating confusion among tax administrators and taxpayers alike and creating uncertainty for domestic and national investors. The analysis of the tax reform are based on these basic criteria, according to which some taxes are especially deemed to be more expedient in a democratic and legal state. The following corresponds with the concept of an adequate tax system for a market economy: correspondence with the market economy's conditions, free of inflation effects, easily to administer and fair taxation. Especially for Georgia, a tax system is desirable, which will work successfully by taking into consideration the small resources of taxpayers and the administration. Some major distortionary effects of the Georgian income tax system can be easily replaced through minor reforms, which would turn it into a consumption-based income tax system. Unfortunately, the public discussion of the Georgian tax system has a rather different focus. As economists, we must keep in mind that taxpayers ask for low taxes (for themselves) but they do not care about neutral taxes. A neutral tax system is a typical public good. Apart from some strange economists, nobody will miss it. But society pays a price for a non-neutral tax system in form of less growth and a distorted industry structure.

Existing research investigating human judgment and decision making describes patterns of systematic biases in the way people process information and make decisions. Framing effects, for example, demonstrate that logically equivalent alternatives presented in divergent linguistic frames can lead to systematically different choice outcomes; in general, people demonstrate a preference for risk-averse behaviour when information is framed positively and risk-seeking behaviour when information is framed negatively. Similarly, the status quo bias describes a tendency for decision makers to maintain current or previous decisions when confronted with the availability of new options, demonstrating that people possess a predisposition to continue with established behaviour. This research proposes that the goals a decision maker adopts and the hedonic tone of the stimulus being evaluated influence whether framing effects are observed; similarly, the past performance of the status quo and complexity of available options influence whether participants exhibit a preference for the status quo. Using a survey-based experimental methodology, the aforementioned propositions are investigated by systematically manipulating characteristics of decision problems in order to reveal the mechanisms which influence the emergence of framing effects and the status quo bias. The results demonstrate that when positive goals or stimuli are emphasized, usual framing effects are observed; that is, participants demonstrate a preference for risk-averse behaviour in the positive frame and risk-seeking behaviour in the negative frame. Conversely, when negative goals or stimuli are emphasized, participants fail to demonstrate the expected shift in risk-preference. Past performance and complexity of the available alternatives are also shown to influence preference for the status quo; specifically, participants demonstrate greater preference for the status quo when past performance is strong compared to when it is weak, and when the number of available options is low compared to when it is high. The findings of this research improve our understanding of how contextual factors influence shifts in preference and the emergence of decision making biases; moreover, the current research demonstrates the need for future research to consider the influence of situational and contextual factors when investigating decision making in particular and human behaviour in general.

Existing research investigating human judgment and decision making describes patterns of systematic biases in the way people process information and make decisions. Framing effects, for example, demonstrate that logically equivalent alternatives presented in divergent linguistic frames can lead to systematically different choice outcomes; in general, people demonstrate a preference for risk-averse behaviour when information is framed positively and risk-seeking behaviour when information is framed negatively. Similarly, the status quo bias describes a tendency for decision makers to maintain current or previous decisions when confronted with the availability of new options, demonstrating that people possess a predisposition to continue with established behaviour. This research proposes that the goals a decision maker adopts and the hedonic tone of the stimulus being evaluated influence whether framing effects are observed; similarly, the past performance of the status quo and complexity of available options influence whether participants exhibit a preference for the status quo. Using a survey-based experimental methodology, the aforementioned propositions are investigated by systematically manipulating characteristics of decision problems in order to reveal the mechanisms which influence the emergence of framing effects and the status quo bias. The results demonstrate that when positive goals or stimuli are emphasized, usual framing effects are observed; that is, participants demonstrate a preference for risk-averse behaviour in the positive frame and risk-seeking behaviour in the negative frame. Conversely, when negative goals or stimuli are emphasized, participants fail to demonstrate the expected shift in risk-preference. Past performance and complexity of the available alternatives are also shown to influence preference for the status quo; specifically, participants demonstrate greater preference for the status quo when past performance is strong compared to when it is weak, and when the number of available options is low compared to when it is high. The findings of this research improve our understanding of how contextual factors influence shifts in preference and the emergence of decision making biases; moreover, the current research demonstrates the need for future research to consider the influence of situational and contextual factors when investigating decision making in particular and human behaviour in general.

The present thesis consists of three studies on the effects of group membership in large group decisions. The overall aim was to contribute to understanding how individuals react when decisions are made in large groups. We explored consequences of procedural justice concerns within such groups. In Study I we investigated how different decision procedures and issue importance affect perceptions of others who agree and disagree with the individual on a potentially important issue.  Individuals attributed more positive reasons for attitudes of those who agree as opposed to disagree with themselves, whereas disagreers were attributed more negative reasons. The asymmetry was moderated by decision form, and issue importance. The attitudes concerned attitudes towards potential new policies. In Study II we investigated differences in participants’ perceptions of others depending on own position towards the new policy. Challengers of the status quo advocating a change in the existing policy, were more biased when judging others than were defenders of the status quo. This suggests that challengers are less tolerant of defenders’ point of view. This effect was not affected by perceptions of minority status among the challengers. In Study III we looked at individual group members’ cognitive restructuring of a preferred decision alternative, and how it differs between decision conditions when the decision-maker is affiliated to own ingroup or not. Results showed that individuals restructure the attractiveness of their preferred alternative in group decisions similarly to what has been previously found in individual decision-making. The magnitude of restructuring was greatest when ingroup members decided for the group. However, this effect was moderated by identification with the ingroup, such that those who identified themselves with the ingroup restructured their preferred alternative more when ingroup members decided as opposed to when outgroup authorities decided. / <p>At the time of doctoral defense, the following paper was unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 2: Submitted.</p>

This dissertation argues that public opinion regarding the acceptability and desirability of income differences is affected by actual income inequality. Cross-national survey evidence is combined with laboratory and survey experiments to show that estimates regarding appropriate income differences depend on (perceptions of) real income differences. When income inequality changes, public opinion "habituates" by adjusting expectations for fair levels of inequality in the same direction as the factual change. The adjustment occurs because humans are subject to status quo bias and have a motivated tendency to believe in a just world. In the context of increasing inequality in developed democracies over the last 40 years, the implication is that normative expectations for appropriate levels of inequality have adjusted up. This habituation process helps explain why increases in inequality have not been accompanied by increased demands for redistribution and why cross-national variation in income inequality is not clearly linked to public opposition to such inequality. / Government

Masters of Commerce / Highly enriched uranium (HEU) is one of the most dangerous materials in the world, because it is a key ingredient in making a nuclear bomb. If a terrorist organisation can get HEU, it would be close to making a nuclear bomb. After South Africa disarmed its nuclear weapons, it kept HEU that was extracted from the nuclear bombs. The US tried to persuade South Africa to blend down its HEU into low enriched uranium (LEU) or give it up for safekeeping. However, South Africa refused to give it up. After a breach at Pelindaba, a national key point facility where South Africa stores its HEU, the US intensified its efforts to pressure South Africa to give its HEU up. It even promised incentives to South Africa should they agree to give it up, but South Africa refused. The US used the nuclear terrorism narrative to justify its initiative to eliminate vulnerable materials in the world. However, South Africa is yet to be swayed. This is odd since South Africa's refusal can negatively affect its credentials as a nuclear non-proliferation and disarmament champion and its image as a norm entrepreneur. The objective of the study was to understand the role played by HEU in South Africa's nuclear diplomacy. It was to explore HEU as a factor in the state's nuclear diplomacy and to understand the power of having HEU in nuclear negotiations, as well as what SA intends to do with its HEU. The study is framed theoretically by drawing on foreign policy theory, namely middle-power theory, and revisionism. It juxtaposed middle power, reformist, and revisionist positions with status quo foreign policy to analyse the role of HEU in South Africa's nuclear diplomacy. As a middle power with a moral high ground, South Africa hoped that it can affect change in the nuclear regime. However, when this did not occur its foreign policy shifted to a revisionist character that is discontent with the status quo in the nuclear regime. SA is dissatisfied with the current nuclear order and wants it revised towards liberal values such as equality and non-discrimination. It views the current nuclear order as nuclear apartheid. Therefore, South Africa uses HEU as leverage against nuclear weapon states in nuclear diplomacy. It is using HEU as an act of defiance against nuclear weapon states (such as the US) that are yet to disarm their nuclear weapons.

No description available.