Thesis, (Ph. D.)--Oregon Graduate Institute of Science and Technology, 1996.

O objetivo deste trabalho foi caracterizar por meio de técnicas eletroquímicas e físicoquímicas o comportamento das camadas de silano aplicadas diretamente sobre as chapas de aço-carbono ABNT 1008 pela técnica de imersão, como uma proteção contra a corrosão. O estudo compreendeu a avaliação do comportamento das monocamadas de BTSE [Bis-1,2-(trietoxisilil)etano], VS (Viniltrietoxisilano) e BTSPA [Bis-(y-trimetoxisililpropil)amina], variando as condições de cura (tempo e temperatura) e também da dupla camada de silano. A dupla camada consistiu na combinação de BTSE como primeira camada e uma segunda camada de VS ou BTSPA. A espectroscopia de impedância eletroquímica (EIS) em solução de NaCl 0,1 M possibilitou detectarem a resistência à corrosão das camadas de silano, revelando que a sua eficiência aumenta com o aumento da temperatura e do tempo de cura e também que uma dupla camada apresenta um efeito protetor mais eficiente que o das monocamadas. Assim, a dupla camada de BTSE + BTSPA forneceu o melhor resultado, comprovando que confere melhor proteção ao aço-carbono. Com a medida ângulo de contato foi possível caracterizar a hidrofobicidade da superfície metálica revestida com o filme de silano, constatando-se que as camadas de BTSE, VS e BTSPA, e as duplas camadas curadas em altas temperaturas são mais hidrofóbicas que o aço-carbono. As curvas de polarização confirmaram os resultados obtidos por EIS, mostrando que a densidade de corrente de corrosão (icorr) diminui com o tempo e a temperatura de cura. A espectroscopia no infravermelho (IR) permitiu acompanhar a extensão da reação de polimerização dos silanos. A microscopia eletrônica de varredura (SEM) e as análises por espectroscopia de energia dispersiva de Raios-X (EDX) evidenciaram o efeito da cura na morfologia e topografia da superfície. Logo, conclui-se que os filmes à base de silanos como pré-tratamentos de aço são eficientes contra a corrosão. / The aim of this work is to characterize by means of electrochemical and physicochemical techniques the behavior of the silane layers applied directly on steel plates as a protection against corrosion. The silane film was obtained by the dip coat technique. This study present the evaluation of the behavior of monolayers of BTSE [Bis-1,2- (triethoxysilyl)ethane, BTSPA [Bis-(y-trimethoxysilylpropyl)amino] and VS (Vinyltriethoxysilane), varying the curing conditions (time and temperature) and also with a double silane layer, consisting of a combination of BTSE as first layer and a VS or BTSPA second layer. The electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) in a NaCl 0.1 M solution allowed the corrosion resistance assessment of the silane layers, showing that their protection efficiency increase for higher curing temperatures and curing times. Double layers were always more protective than monolayers. The contact angle measurements allowed to characterize the hydrophobicity of the metallic surface coated with the silane film, showing that the layers of BTSE, VS and BTSPA cured at higher temperatures are more hydrophobic and, therefore, more protective. The polarization curves confirmed the results obtained by EIS, showing that the corrosion current densities (icorr) decreased when the curing time and temperature were increased. The infrared spectroscopy (IR) showed the extension of the polymerization reaction of the silane layers. The SEM images and the EDX analyses evidenced the effect of the cure on the morphology and topography of the surface. Thus, the results lead to conclude that silane based films are good alternatives as pre-treatments for steel against corrosion.

O objetivo deste trabalho foi caracterizar por meio de técnicas eletroquímicas e físicoquímicas o comportamento das camadas de silano aplicadas diretamente sobre as chapas de aço-carbono ABNT 1008 pela técnica de imersão, como uma proteção contra a corrosão. O estudo compreendeu a avaliação do comportamento das monocamadas de BTSE [Bis-1,2-(trietoxisilil)etano], VS (Viniltrietoxisilano) e BTSPA [Bis-(y-trimetoxisililpropil)amina], variando as condições de cura (tempo e temperatura) e também da dupla camada de silano. A dupla camada consistiu na combinação de BTSE como primeira camada e uma segunda camada de VS ou BTSPA. A espectroscopia de impedância eletroquímica (EIS) em solução de NaCl 0,1 M possibilitou detectarem a resistência à corrosão das camadas de silano, revelando que a sua eficiência aumenta com o aumento da temperatura e do tempo de cura e também que uma dupla camada apresenta um efeito protetor mais eficiente que o das monocamadas. Assim, a dupla camada de BTSE + BTSPA forneceu o melhor resultado, comprovando que confere melhor proteção ao aço-carbono. Com a medida ângulo de contato foi possível caracterizar a hidrofobicidade da superfície metálica revestida com o filme de silano, constatando-se que as camadas de BTSE, VS e BTSPA, e as duplas camadas curadas em altas temperaturas são mais hidrofóbicas que o aço-carbono. As curvas de polarização confirmaram os resultados obtidos por EIS, mostrando que a densidade de corrente de corrosão (icorr) diminui com o tempo e a temperatura de cura. A espectroscopia no infravermelho (IR) permitiu acompanhar a extensão da reação de polimerização dos silanos. A microscopia eletrônica de varredura (SEM) e as análises por espectroscopia de energia dispersiva de Raios-X (EDX) evidenciaram o efeito da cura na morfologia e topografia da superfície. Logo, conclui-se que os filmes à base de silanos como pré-tratamentos de aço são eficientes contra a corrosão. / The aim of this work is to characterize by means of electrochemical and physicochemical techniques the behavior of the silane layers applied directly on steel plates as a protection against corrosion. The silane film was obtained by the dip coat technique. This study present the evaluation of the behavior of monolayers of BTSE [Bis-1,2- (triethoxysilyl)ethane, BTSPA [Bis-(y-trimethoxysilylpropyl)amino] and VS (Vinyltriethoxysilane), varying the curing conditions (time and temperature) and also with a double silane layer, consisting of a combination of BTSE as first layer and a VS or BTSPA second layer. The electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) in a NaCl 0.1 M solution allowed the corrosion resistance assessment of the silane layers, showing that their protection efficiency increase for higher curing temperatures and curing times. Double layers were always more protective than monolayers. The contact angle measurements allowed to characterize the hydrophobicity of the metallic surface coated with the silane film, showing that the layers of BTSE, VS and BTSPA cured at higher temperatures are more hydrophobic and, therefore, more protective. The polarization curves confirmed the results obtained by EIS, showing that the corrosion current densities (icorr) decreased when the curing time and temperature were increased. The infrared spectroscopy (IR) showed the extension of the polymerization reaction of the silane layers. The SEM images and the EDX analyses evidenced the effect of the cure on the morphology and topography of the surface. Thus, the results lead to conclude that silane based films are good alternatives as pre-treatments for steel against corrosion.

Preferential weld corrosion (PWC) remains a major operational challenge that jeopardizes the integrity of oil and gas production facilities. It is the selective dissolution of metal associated with welds, such that the weld metal (WM) and / or the adjacent heat-affected zone (HAZ) corrode rather than the parent metal (PM). Corrosion inhibition is conventionally used to mitigate this problem however several indications suggest that some corrosion inhibitors may increase PWC. Furthermore, it is not possible to detect systems that are susceptible to PWC and or to understand the apparent ineffectiveness of some corrosion inhibitors at high flow rates. Consequently, the aim of this research is to assess the suitability of submerged jet impingement method to study flow accelerated preferential weld corrosion, which is critical to safe and economic operations of offshore oil and gas facilities. In this research, a submerged jet-impingement flow loop was used to investigate corrosion control of X65 steel weldment in flowing brine, saturated with carbon dioxide at 1 bar, and containing a typical oilfield corrosion inhibitor. A novel jet-impingement target was constructed from samples of parent material, heat affected zone and weld metal, and subjected to flowing brine at velocities up to 10 ms- 1 , to give a range of hydrodynamic conditions from stagnation to high turbulence. The galvanic currents between the electrodes in each hydrodynamic zone were recorded using zero-resistance ammeters and their self-corrosion rates were measured using the linear polarisation technique. At low flow rates, the galvanic currents were small and in some cases the weld metal and heat affected zone were partially protected by the sacrificial corrosion of the parent material. However, at higher flow rates the galvanic currents increased but some current reversals were observed, leading to accelerated corrosion of the weld region. The most severe corrosion occurred when oxygen was deliberately admitted into the flow loop to simulate typical oilfield conditions. The results are explained in terms of the selective removal of the inhibitor film from different regions of the weldment at high flow rates and the corrosion mechanism in the presence of oxygen is discussed.

A soldagem a ponto por resistência é o processo mais usado na montagem de estruturas, tais como: automóveis, caminhões, aviões, vagões de trem, etc. Como exemplo, na montagem das carrocerias de automóveis são necessários em média 5.000 pontos de solda. Segundo a ANFAVEA a produção em 2010 no Brasil ultrapassou 3,5 milhões de automóveis, ou seja, aproximadamente 17,5 bilhões de pontos de solda por ano. Estes fatos evidenciam a importância deste processo de soldagem na montagem de carroceria devido a sua eficiência, rapidez e facilidade na automação. Além disso, o comportamento da soldagem a ponto por resistência é extremamente importante para a qualidade de toda a estrutura soldada. O presente trabalho será voltado para a avaliação e estudo da soldabilidade de chapas de aço de 0,8 mm, revestidas e não revestidas com zinco, na indústria automotiva, comparando-se dois equipamentos de soldagem com dois tipos de corrente de soldagem: corrente alternada (CA) e corrente contínua de média freqüência (CC). Foram feitos diagramas de soldabilidade: corrente (kA) x tempo (ms) com força constante e corrente (kA) x força (kgf) com tempo (s) de soldagem constante e localizada suas respectivas áreas comuns. Em seguida foram feitos diagramas em terceira dimensão (3D) com os três principais parâmetros (força, corrente e tempo) e localizado um ponto otimizado. Posteriormente foram analisadas, nos pontos otimizados, as dimensões geométricas do ponto através da macrografia, a resistência mecânica com ensaio de tração e, durante a soldagem, a resistência dinâmica e a energia elétrica dinâmica. Foram seguidos como requisitos técnicos para qualificação de soldagem conforme norma. Os resultados mostraram que, a soldagem em CC apresentou-se melhor em chapas sem revestimento se comparada com a soldagem em CA. E a soldagem em CA apresentou-se melhor em chapas com revestimento de zinco se comparada com a soldagem em CC. A queima do revestimento de zinco e a rugosidade superficial das chapas não afetaram a formação do ponto de solda. As durezas nas regiões da ZAC e no ponto de solda apresentaram-se maiores em chapas sem revestimento. Todos os pontos de solda com os parâmetros otimizados, encontrados pelo método apresentado neste trabalho, foram aprovados conforme norma. / Resistance spot welding is highly used in the structures assembly, such as: cars, trucks, planes, trains, etc. For example, 5.000 weld spots are necessary in an auto-body assembly. According to ANFAVEA, Brazilian production in 2010 overtook 3.5 millions of cars, in order words, around 17,5 billions weld spot per year. This fact evidences the importance of this welding process due to its efficiency, rapidity and easiness in the automation. Moreover, the resistance spot welding behavior is highly important for all the welded structure quality. This work aimed to study the weldability of zinc non-coated and zinc coated steel sheets of 0,8 mm thickness for automotive industry, comparing two welding equipments with two kinds of current: alternating current (AC) and medium frequency direct current (DC). The weld lobes are presented: current (kA) x time (s) with constant force (kgf) and current (kA) x force (kgf) with constant welding time. After, lobes in third dimension (3D) with the three main parameters were done (force, current and time) and located the great point. Afterwards, the great points were characterized using, optic metallografly, mechanical resistance with tensile-shear test and, during welding, the dynamic resistance and dynamic energy. The describe techniques were followed as technical requisites according to the standard. The results showed that the welding in DC presented better performance in uncoated sheets when compared to the AC welding. And the AC welding presented better performance in zinc coated sheets when compared to DC welding. Zinc coating burning and sheets surface roughness did not affect the spot weld formation. The hardness in the HAZ regions and in the spot weld was higher in uncoated sheets. All spot welds with the optimized parameters, found by the method presented in this work, were approved according to the standard.

A soldagem a ponto por resistência é o processo mais usado na montagem de estruturas, tais como: automóveis, caminhões, aviões, vagões de trem, etc. Como exemplo, na montagem das carrocerias de automóveis são necessários em média 5.000 pontos de solda. Segundo a ANFAVEA a produção em 2010 no Brasil ultrapassou 3,5 milhões de automóveis, ou seja, aproximadamente 17,5 bilhões de pontos de solda por ano. Estes fatos evidenciam a importância deste processo de soldagem na montagem de carroceria devido a sua eficiência, rapidez e facilidade na automação. Além disso, o comportamento da soldagem a ponto por resistência é extremamente importante para a qualidade de toda a estrutura soldada. O presente trabalho será voltado para a avaliação e estudo da soldabilidade de chapas de aço de 0,8 mm, revestidas e não revestidas com zinco, na indústria automotiva, comparando-se dois equipamentos de soldagem com dois tipos de corrente de soldagem: corrente alternada (CA) e corrente contínua de média freqüência (CC). Foram feitos diagramas de soldabilidade: corrente (kA) x tempo (ms) com força constante e corrente (kA) x força (kgf) com tempo (s) de soldagem constante e localizada suas respectivas áreas comuns. Em seguida foram feitos diagramas em terceira dimensão (3D) com os três principais parâmetros (força, corrente e tempo) e localizado um ponto otimizado. Posteriormente foram analisadas, nos pontos otimizados, as dimensões geométricas do ponto através da macrografia, a resistência mecânica com ensaio de tração e, durante a soldagem, a resistência dinâmica e a energia elétrica dinâmica. Foram seguidos como requisitos técnicos para qualificação de soldagem conforme norma. Os resultados mostraram que, a soldagem em CC apresentou-se melhor em chapas sem revestimento se comparada com a soldagem em CA. E a soldagem em CA apresentou-se melhor em chapas com revestimento de zinco se comparada com a soldagem em CC. A queima do revestimento de zinco e a rugosidade superficial das chapas não afetaram a formação do ponto de solda. As durezas nas regiões da ZAC e no ponto de solda apresentaram-se maiores em chapas sem revestimento. Todos os pontos de solda com os parâmetros otimizados, encontrados pelo método apresentado neste trabalho, foram aprovados conforme norma. / Resistance spot welding is highly used in the structures assembly, such as: cars, trucks, planes, trains, etc. For example, 5.000 weld spots are necessary in an auto-body assembly. According to ANFAVEA, Brazilian production in 2010 overtook 3.5 millions of cars, in order words, around 17,5 billions weld spot per year. This fact evidences the importance of this welding process due to its efficiency, rapidity and easiness in the automation. Moreover, the resistance spot welding behavior is highly important for all the welded structure quality. This work aimed to study the weldability of zinc non-coated and zinc coated steel sheets of 0,8 mm thickness for automotive industry, comparing two welding equipments with two kinds of current: alternating current (AC) and medium frequency direct current (DC). The weld lobes are presented: current (kA) x time (s) with constant force (kgf) and current (kA) x force (kgf) with constant welding time. After, lobes in third dimension (3D) with the three main parameters were done (force, current and time) and located the great point. Afterwards, the great points were characterized using, optic metallografly, mechanical resistance with tensile-shear test and, during welding, the dynamic resistance and dynamic energy. The describe techniques were followed as technical requisites according to the standard. The results showed that the welding in DC presented better performance in uncoated sheets when compared to the AC welding. And the AC welding presented better performance in zinc coated sheets when compared to DC welding. Zinc coating burning and sheets surface roughness did not affect the spot weld formation. The hardness in the HAZ regions and in the spot weld was higher in uncoated sheets. All spot welds with the optimized parameters, found by the method presented in this work, were approved according to the standard.

There has been progress in the surface modification of low carbon steel in order to enhance its surface hardness. This study contributes to this by investigating the introduction of carbon nanotubes and amorphous carbon in the carburization of mild steel. In order to achieve the goal, carbon nanotubes were synthesized in a horizontal tubular reactor placed in a furnace also called the chemical vapor deposition process at a temperature of 700oC. Catalyst was produced from Iron nitrate Fe(NO3)3.9H2O and Cobalt nitrate Co(NO3)2.6H2O on CaCO3 support while acetylene C2H2 was used as the carbon source and nitrogen N2 was used as contaminant remover. The as-synthesized carbon nanotubes were purified using nitric acid HNO3 and characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), thermo-gravimetric analysis (TGA) and fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). It was found that as-synthesized carbon nanotubes had varying lengths with diameters between 42-52 nm from the SEM and the TGA showed the as-synthesized CNTs with a mass loss of 78% while purified CNTs had 85% with no damage done to the structures after using the one step acid treatment. The as-synthesized and purified carbon nanotubes were used in carburizing low carbon steel (AISI 1018) at two austenitic temperatures of 750oC and 800oC and varying periods of 10-50 minutes while amorphous carbon obtained by pulverizing coal was also used as comparison. The mild steel samples were carburized with carbon nanotubes and amorphous carbon in a laboratory muffle furnace with a defined number of boost and diffusion steps. The carburizing atmosphere consisted of heating up to the varying temperatures at a speed of 10oC/minute, heating under this condition at varying periods, performing a defined number of boost and diffusion processes at the varying temperatures and cooling to room temperatures under the same condition. The carburized surfaces were observed with the Olympus SC50 optical microscope and the hardness distribution of the carburized layer was inspected with a Vickers FM 700 micro-hardness tester. The as-synthesized and purified CNT samples showed higher hardness on the surface of the mild steel than the amorphous carbon. In the same vein, the change in the microstructures of vi the steel samples indicated that good and improved surface hardness was obtained in this work with the reinforcements but with purified CNT having the highest peak surface hardness value of 191.64 ± 4.16 GPa at 800oC, as-synthesized CNT with 177.88 ± 2.35 GPa and amorphous carbon with 160.702 ± 5.79 GPa which are higher compared to the values obtained at 750oC and that of the original substrate which had a surface hardness of 145.188 ± 2.66 GPa. The percentage hardness obtained for the reinforcement with the amorphous carbon, the CNT and the pCNT showed an increase of 5.47%, 10.04% and 15.77% respectively at 750oC when compared to that of the normal substrate carburized without reinforcements. Furthermore, at 800oC, the reinforcement with the amorphous carbon, the CNT and the pCNT show a percentage hardness increase of 7.04%, 14.68% and 22.05% when compared to that of the normal substrate carburized without reinforcements. Comparing the reinforcement potential of the amorphous carbon, the CNT and the pCNT at 750oC, the percentage hardness reveal that using pCNT displayed an increase of 10.89% over that of amorphous carbon and of 6.37% over that of CNT. In addition, the use of CNT as reinforcement at 750oC displayed a percentage hardness increase of 4.83% over that of the amorphous carbon carburized at the same temperature / Civil and Chemical Engineering / M. Tech. (Chemical Engineering)

There has been progress in the surface modification of low carbon steel in order to enhance its surface hardness. This study contributes to this by investigating the introduction of carbon nanotubes and amorphous carbon in the carburization of mild steel. In order to achieve the goal, carbon nanotubes were synthesized in a horizontal tubular reactor placed in a furnace also called the chemical vapor deposition process at a temperature of 700oC. Catalyst was produced from Iron nitrate Fe(NO3)3.9H2O and Cobalt nitrate Co(NO3)2.6H2O on CaCO3 support while acetylene C2H2 was used as the carbon source and nitrogen N2 was used as contaminant remover. The as-synthesized carbon nanotubes were purified using nitric acid HNO3 and characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), thermo-gravimetric analysis (TGA) and fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). It was found that as-synthesized carbon nanotubes had varying lengths with diameters between 42-52 nm from the SEM and the TGA showed the as-synthesized CNTs with a mass loss of 78% while purified CNTs had 85% with no damage done to the structures after using the one step acid treatment. The as-synthesized and purified carbon nanotubes were used in carburizing low carbon steel (AISI 1018) at two austenitic temperatures of 750oC and 800oC and varying periods of 10-50 minutes while amorphous carbon obtained by pulverizing coal was also used as comparison. The mild steel samples were carburized with carbon nanotubes and amorphous carbon in a laboratory muffle furnace with a defined number of boost and diffusion steps. The carburizing atmosphere consisted of heating up to the varying temperatures at a speed of 10oC/minute, heating under this condition at varying periods, performing a defined number of boost and diffusion processes at the varying temperatures and cooling to room temperatures under the same condition. The carburized surfaces were observed with the Olympus SC50 optical microscope and the hardness distribution of the carburized layer was inspected with a Vickers FM 700 micro-hardness tester. The as-synthesized and purified CNT samples showed higher hardness on the surface of the mild steel than the amorphous carbon. In the same vein, the change in the microstructures of vi the steel samples indicated that good and improved surface hardness was obtained in this work with the reinforcements but with purified CNT having the highest peak surface hardness value of 191.64 ± 4.16 GPa at 800oC, as-synthesized CNT with 177.88 ± 2.35 GPa and amorphous carbon with 160.702 ± 5.79 GPa which are higher compared to the values obtained at 750oC and that of the original substrate which had a surface hardness of 145.188 ± 2.66 GPa. The percentage hardness obtained for the reinforcement with the amorphous carbon, the CNT and the pCNT showed an increase of 5.47%, 10.04% and 15.77% respectively at 750oC when compared to that of the normal substrate carburized without reinforcements. Furthermore, at 800oC, the reinforcement with the amorphous carbon, the CNT and the pCNT show a percentage hardness increase of 7.04%, 14.68% and 22.05% when compared to that of the normal substrate carburized without reinforcements. Comparing the reinforcement potential of the amorphous carbon, the CNT and the pCNT at 750oC, the percentage hardness reveal that using pCNT displayed an increase of 10.89% over that of amorphous carbon and of 6.37% over that of CNT. In addition, the use of CNT as reinforcement at 750oC displayed a percentage hardness increase of 4.83% over that of the amorphous carbon carburized at the same temperature / Civil and Chemical Engineering / M. Tech. (Chemical Engineering)

The objective of this thesis is to improve understanding of the development of corrosion products (scales) that form on the inner walls of carbon steel pipelines in CO2-rich (sweet) oilfield environments. If well adherent to the carbon steel surface, such scales can significantly reduce the metal’s rate of corrosion. Typically, the open literature labels sweet corrosion scale as ferrous (II) carbonate (FeCO3) or siderite, although this may not always be the case. For example, Fe2(OH)2CO3 (chukanovite) and Fe3O4 (magnetite) are known to modify the protective character of a sweet corrosion product scale. Practical electrochemical methods for the assessment of substrate corrosion, and electron/photon-based characterisation techniques for investigating scale structure and composition, have revealed interesting aspects of the nature of sweet corrosion scale development on model high purity Fe and real-world pipeline steel surfaces. Concerning scale development on model Fe substrates immersed in CO2-saturated deionised water (buffered to pH = 6.8, T = 80°C, Ptotal = 1 bar), electrochemical data supplemented by grazing incidence x-ray diffraction (GIXRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) show that a semi-protective mixed corrosion scale comprising siderite and chukanovite becomes a highly protective siderite scale with longer exposure time. The introduction of sodium chloride to the CO2-saturated solution (T = 80°C, pH = 6.8, Ptotal = 1 bar) impedes the rate of scale formation. Increasing [NaCl] from the start of experiment is suspected to limit the precipitation kinetics of sweet corrosion scale crystals, since chukanovite is no longer observed, and siderite formation is somewhat slowed as well. SEM imaging, using an electronic workfunction-sensitive detector (in lens), reveals nanoscale deposits on the corroded Fe surface in regions that are devoid of µm-scale crystals. With the Raman spectra from these regions considered, it is interpreted that the nanoscale deposits are likely amorphous iron carbonate, albeit oxidised to a significant extent. Moving to real-world carbon steel immersion in sweet solutions, a scale comprising predominantly chukanovite is observed (using GIXRD and SEM) on the 1% Ni weld zone (WZ) surface of a pipeline weld-joint, but not on adjacent, distinct regions (heat affected zones (HAZ) and base metal (BM)). This selective scaling is suggested to be due to some initial corrosion of the weld-joint, which generates sufficient [Fe2+(aq)], and a macro-galvanic effect across the weld, i.e. WZ is cathodic to HAZ and BM. Further, to gain mechanistic insight into compositional changes during sweet corrosion scale growth, an electrochemical cell for in situ GIXRD (named E-cell) has been developed and commissioned. Diffraction patterns acquired using synchrotron radiation, from a pipeline steel surface, reveal the formation and temporal evolution of a multicomponent corrosion scale. Accompanying electrochemical data suggest that the scale is quite protective.