Pauline Ramugondo describes her weekend, Saturdays- the busiest day. I do the washing, the mending of clothes for the children. You know, a woman is always busy at home .... It is a double job .... You get a rest when you go to church or at the mtshaolo. A mtshaolo is one of the many types of voluntary associations which have emerged to help people cope with pressures of urban life. Most of these help household savings. The most common are burial societies, and stokvels.

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree, Doctor of Philosophy in Community Psychology in the Department of Psychology University of Zululand, South Africa, 2011. / Stokvels are social groups usually formed randomly by people who share a common bond such as relatives, neighbours, colleagues in the workplace or friends with a purpose of financially saving together on a monthly basis. This study aimed to explore the group dynamics in stokvels and its implications on the members’ mental health and psychological well-being. In this qualitative study, a non probability sampling technique was used and the participants were selected by means of a snowball sampling. The sample consisted of eight middle aged women between the ages of 35 and 45 from the townships in KwaZulu Natal. The inclusion criteria being that they were stokvel participants for over five years. Data was gathered through the use of semi-structured interviews to elicit the spoken experiences and narratives by individual members. The data collected was then analyzed according to the aim and objectives of the study using grounded theory, particularly the Straussian approach. The results of the study suggested that the group dynamics of fight or flight response, trust versus mistrust and dependence versus independence appear to be experienced at polar opposites. The latter further infers the ambivalent behavior that members engage with a view to succeed within the stokvels’ environments. The results also identified three themes, which revealed the members’ mental health and their psychological well-being as experienced within the stokvel environment; the empowering dimension, pathological dimension and the resilience demonstration dimension. The findings of the research also highlight and further contribute towards the advancement of the communal concepts of “ubuntu” and “we”ness inherent in the stokvek names.

Two and a half billion of the world’s working adults are excluded from financial services. The exclusion of people from the formal financial sector has led to the growth of microfinance globally. The importance of financial inclusion is represented through the Sustainable Development Goals in which financial inclusion is an enabler in seven of the 17 goals. In South Africa, stokvels are one of the most important microfinance phenomena, as 11.5-million people are part of a stokvel. The formal financial sector in South Africa has started to target stokvel members through various stokvel accounts and products. Previous literature on stokvels focuses on the demography of stokvels; the features of stokvels; and the history of stokvels. Previous studies have found that the formal sector does not understand stokvel clientele. However, the review of the literature indicates that there is an insufficient analysis of the needs of stokvel members and the how the formal sector can better accommodate their needs. Therefore, this study will explore why South Africans continue to use stokvels and what barriers prevent stokvel members from participating in the formal financial sector. Recommendations will be made to various stakeholder based on the themes identified. This study found that the stokvel members perceived there to be information asymmetry, which they believe is then exploited by the banks. As a result, there is distrust in the formal financial system. Moreover, this study also found that the social interactions in stokvels are changing due to technology. The findings and recommendations in this study can be used by banks and other formal financial institutions to improve the suitability of their product and services. Consequently, financial inclusion will improve as the products and services provided by the formal sector will be better suited to the needs of stokvel members. This study will also provide insights for the South African government, community leaders and The National Stokvel Association of South Africa (NASASA).

This study was undertaken to investigate the major reasons behind the use of informal financial services by middle and high-income individuals in South Africa with specific reference to rotational savings and credit associations, locally known as stokvels. The ultimate aim was to recommend ways in which banks and other formal financial institutions could aptly address the financial needs of these individuals. The study was conducted in Pretoria, which is situated in the Gauteng province of South Africa. The data for this research was mainly gathered through two focus group discussion techniques, namely: the discussion guide and product attribute raking (PRA). Two mini questionnaires were also used to collect personal information from the participants. The research revealed three major categories of high-budget stokvels namely: the generic,targeted saving and investment stokvels. The main users of these stokvels are black males and females with a monthly income of R11 500 or more. They are typically individuals of 31 to 49 years of age. They are highly educated individuals holders of qualifications equivalent to a university degree or higher. Further analysis of the participants in this sample revealed a tendency for the stokvels to be formed along gender, workplace/colleague and kinship lines. The study shows that in addition to social fulfilment, the major financial need satisfied by these stokvels is saving to accumulate a lump sum for a birthday party, holiday or consumer goods and to take advantage of investment opportunities. The study identified the following specific reasons behind the participation in highbudget stokvels; to take advantage of collective/forced saving, avoid financial charges, low returns on small amounts of individual savings in banks and social fulfilment. The findings highlight the formal financial institutions¡¦ lack of awareness for the need to profile, design appropriate products and delivery systems for the black middle and highincome clients in South Africa. The study also shows that banks do not really understand this clientele. The study findings necessitate profile targeting, achievable through ongoing and comprehensive research in the product and service requirements of this clientele. The suggested research will enable formal financial institutions to improve service provision, as well as to identify and design products for this clientele. The study calls for the following changes in formal financial institutions: <ul> <li>Increased investment in self-service banking</li> <li>Bank staff should be trained to sensitise them to the financial, social needs and expectations of this clientele</li> <li>In addition, banks should strive to accelerate the employment of staff fluent in several indigenous languages and increase use of indigenous languages in formal financial institutions</li> <li>Banks and formal financial institutions in general, should endeavour to design products and product delivery systems that address the social needs of clients.</li> <li>Increased investment in social responsibility and visibility of formal financial institutions in black townships.</li> </ul> Finally, the study recommends that if formal financial providers are to participate in this lucrative market, it is imperative that they emulate the principles on which informal financial institutions such as high-budget stokvels operate. / Dissertation (M Inst Agrar (Agricultural Economics))--University of Pretoria, 2007. / Agricultural Economics, Extension and Rural Development / M Inst Agrar / unrestricted

Since the 1950s modernization theory predicted within the Third World a trajectory for social evolution and development mirroring perceived social and developmental evolution in Western societies since the 17th Century. Despite this theory being much discredited in both Western societies and the developing world; this theory still forms the basis for much analysis and policy formulation within post-1990 South Africa. This thesis looks at various aspects of urban black South Africans' existence and concludes that African tradition has found a place within an urban existence due to it's flexibility in dealing with peoples' daily challenges. An urban existence can thus no-longer be thought of as supplanting tradition in favour of western influences, but rather as bringing about a mixture of western and traditional influences - with positive and negative theoretical and practical developmental consequences / Development Studies / M.A.

Text in English with abstracts in English, isiZulu, Northern Sotho and Tshivenda / This study explores the phenomenon of stokvels − membership-based savings schemes providing for the social and financial wellbeing of their members as well as entertainment (Lukhele, 1990). The purpose of the study is to identify the existence of a different kind of economy that is not informed by the capitalist logic. The study aims to examine the values that underpin stokvels and to locate them within a particular socio-cultural and historical context. This is a qualitative research study and my research approach included fieldwork, participant observation, in-depth interviews and the procedure of genealogy. The study, employing these methods, has enabled me to draw a connection between the Khumalo clan - the generation of Mzilikazi Khumalo who was a friend to King Shaka and is argued to have played a pivotal role in building what is known as the Zulu nation today – and my uncles. In the six months I spent at Esihlengeni, a small village in Vryheid, KwaZulu-Natal, I interviewed 27 people, attended two funerals, one family ritual and conducted two focus group discussions with stokvel women. I found that stokvels are not centred on an African epistemic framework as anticipated in the problem statement but are still within the capitalist logic of profit and thus do not draw from the community’s traditional values. While stokvels are informed by the dominant capitalist logic, the community of Esihlengeni still draws from their cosmological worldview that provides them with a different understanding of the economy that is centred on cattle – the means that allow them to perform rituals that guarantee protection and continuity of life - to make sense of their world. Their insistence on the importance of cattle in this community is their cry to be allowed to exist and be recognised as humans that can think for themselves. I conclude by arguing that to understand this community correctly, we need to take the ontological difference seriously that we cannot possibly have only one way of existing. The community of Esihlengeni thus provides us with the economic theory that is centred on life in its totality – that takes both the physical and metaphysical into consideration to ensure the continuity of life. As such, the community of Esihlengeni should be regarded as a gift to be appreciated. / Lolucwaningo luhlaziya isimo sezitokofela – uhlelo lokonga olunika abayingxenye yalo ukweseka kwezomphakathi, ezomnotho nezokuzijabulisa (Lukhele 1990). Ingqikimba yokwenza lolucwaningo ukubonisa ubukhona bomnnotho ohlukile, ongatshelwa wumnotho ogxile kwinzuzo, phecelezi ikhephithalizimu. Injongo yalolucwaningo ukuhlolisisa izimiso ezisekela amastokofela nokuwabeka endaweni ethize yezinhlalo zomphakathi-namasiko kanye nomlando. Lolucwaningo lugxile kwizizathu zokuba yingxenye kuloluhlelo, indlela yokuthola imininingwane ixhumanisa ukuchitha isikhathi nabantu, ukubamba ingxenye kwizinto abazenzayo, ukubabuza imibuzo ejulile, nokudweba imvelaphi yabo. Kulolucwaningo, ngokusebenzisa lezizindlela zokucwaninga, ngakwazi ukuxhumanisa isizwe sakwaKhumalo – inzalo yenkosi uMzilikazi Khumalo owaye umngani wenkosi uShaka futhi kuthiwa wabamba iqhaza eliqavile ekwakheni isizwe esaziwa njengamaZulu namhlanje – nomalume bami. Ezinyangeni eziyisithupha engazicitha eSihlengeni - isigodi esiseFilidili KwaZulu-Natali, ngaba nendabangxoxiswano nabantu amangamashumi amabili nesikhombisa, ngaya emingcwabeni emibili nasembenzini owodwa womndeni, ngase ngikhulumisana namaqoqo amabili omama besitokofela. Ngathola ukuthi izitokofela azizinzile kwinqubomigomo yesintu njengoba ngangisola esitatimendeni socwaningo, kodwa angaphakathi komnotho ogxile kwinzuzo, ikhephithalizimi, ngakhoke awasebenzisi imikhuba yesintu yalomphakathi. Noma amastokofela egxile kumnotho oqgamile ogxile kwinzuzo, lomphakathi waseSihlengeni usasebenzisa indlela yawo yokuphila eveza inqubomgomo ehlukile yomnotho ogxile ezinkomeni - eziyisisekelo sokwenza amasiko aqinekisa ukuvikeleka nenqubekela phambili yempilo – ukuqondisisa imvelo. Ukuphikelela kokubaluleka kwezinkomo kulomphakathi isikhalo sokuthi uvumeleke ukuba aphile futhi ubonwe njengabantu abakwaziyo ukuzicabangela. Ngiphetha ngokuthi ukuqondisisa lomphakathi kahle, kumele sithathe ukuhlukana kwezizwe okuyimvelo yempilo ngokuzimisela, ukuthi kungenzeke kube nendlela eyodwa yokuphila. Umphakathi waseSihlengeni ngakhoke usinika inqubomugomo yomnotho egxile empilweni ngokuphelela kwayo – uthatha okubonakalayo nokungabonakali ukuqiniseka kokuqhubekela phambili kwempilo. Kanjaloke, umphakathi waseSihlengeni kumele ubonakale njengesipho okumelwe sibungazwe. / Nyakišišo ye e bolela ka ditokofele – dikema tša polokelo tša go thewa godimo ga boleloko go dira gore maloko a tšona a be le boiketlo go tša leago, matlotlo le boithabišo (Lukhele, 1990). Morero wa nyakišišo ye ke go hlaola go ba gona ga mehuta ya go fapana ya ekonomi yeo e sa huetšwego ke lotšiki ya bokepitale. Maikemišetšo a nyakišišo ke go lekola melawana yeo e thekgago ditokofele le go di bea ka gare ga maemo a itšeng a histori, a leago le a setšo. Ye ke nyakišišo ya khwalithethifi gomme sebopego sa nyakišišo ya ka se akaretša tlhohlomišo, temošo ya bakgathatema, dipoledišano tša go tsenelela le tshepedišo ya tšinealotši. Nyakišišo, ya go šomiša mekgwa ye, e nkgontšhitše go laetša kamano gare ga lešika la ga Khumalo ‒ moloko wa Mzilikazi Khumalo yoo a bego e le mogwera wa Kgošikgolo Shaka gape o dumelwa go ba a bapetše karolo ye bohlokwa kagong ya seo lehono se tsebjago bjalo ka setšhaba sa Mazulu ‒ le bomalome ba ka. Mo dikgweding tše tshela tše ke di feditšego Esihlengeni, motse wo monyane go la Vryheid, KwaZulu-Natal, ke boledišane le batho ba 27, ke tsenetše ditirelo tše pedi tša poloko, moetlo o tee wa lapa le go swara dipoledišano tše pedi tša go lebantšha sehlopha gotee le basadi ba setokofele. Ke hweditše gore ditokofele ga di latele foreimiweke ya epistemiki ya Afrika bjalo ka ge go letetšwe ka gare ga tlhalošo ya taba eupša di sa le ka gare ga lotšiki ya bokepitale ya poelo gomme ka go realo ga di latele ditumelo tša setšo tša setšhaba. Mola ditokofele di latela lotšiki ya bokepitale ye e bušago, setšhaba sa Esihlengeni se sa ntše se latela pono ya sona ya kosmolotši ya lefase yeo e ba fago kwešišo ye e fapanego ya ekonomi ya go thewa godimo ga dikgomo – mokgwa wo o ba dumelelago go phetha moetlo wa go tiišetša tšhireletšo le tšwelopele ya bophelo – go kwešiša lefase la bona. Phegelelo ya bona go bohlokwa bja dikgomo ka setšhabeng se ke sello sa bona sa gore ba dumelelwe go ba gona le go amogelwa bjalo ka batho bao ba kago inaganela. Ke fetša ka gore go kwešiša setšhaba se e le ka nnete, re nyaka go tšea kgopolo ya ontolotši bjalo ka ye bohlokwa ya gore re ka se kgonego ba fela le tsela e tee ya go phela. Setšhaba sa Esihlengeni ka go realo se re fa teori ya ekonomi yeo e theilwego godimo ga bophelo ka moka ga bjona – seo se akaretša bobedi fisikale le metafisikale go kgonthišiša tšwelopele ya bophelo. Bjalo, setšhaba sa Esihlengeni se swanela go tšewa bjalo ka mpho ye e amogelwago. / Ngudo iyi i tandula tshibveleli tsha zwiṱokofela − vhuraḓo ho ḓisendekaho nga zwikimu zwa u vhulunga u itela u dzudzanyea nga tshitshavha na lwa masheleni kha miraḓo khathihi na vhuḓimvumvusi (Lukhele, 1990). Ndivho ya ngudo ndi u topola u vha hone ha tshaka dzo fhambanaho dza ikonomi dzine dza sa ḓivhadzwe nga thevhekano ya pfuma. Ngudo yo pika u ṱola zwithu zwa ndeme zwo tikaho zwiṱokofela na u u wana vhukati hazwo nyimele ya matshilisano na mvelelo kathihi na ḓivhazwakale. Hei ndi ngudo ya ṱhoḓisiso ya ndeme na nyolo ya ṱhoḓisiso yanga yo katela mushumo wa nnḓa, u sedza vhadzheneli, inthaviwu dzo dzhenelelaho na kuitele kwa vhutumbukwa. Ngudo dzi shumisaho ngona idzi, dzo nkonisa u vhona vhuṱumani vhukati ha lushaka lwa ha Khumalo ‒ murafho wa ha Mzilikazi Khumalo we wa vha u khonani dza Khosi Shaka nahone hu pfi wo shela mulenzhe zwihulwane kha u fhaṱa zwi vhidzwaho uri lushaka lwa ha Zulu ṋamusi ‒ na vhomalume anga. Kha miṅwedzi ya rathi ye nda I fhedza ngei Esihlengeni, kuḓana ku re kha ḽa Vryheid, KwaZulu-Natal, ndo inthaviwa vhathu vha 27, nda dzhenela mbulungo mbili, nyitelatherelo nthihi ya muṱa na tshimbidza nyambedzano dza zwigwada zwo sedzaho mbili na vhafumakadzi vha zwiṱokofela. Ndo wana uri zwiṱokofela a zwo ngo ḓisendeka nga muhanga wa nḓivho ya Afrika sa zwe zwa lavhelelwa kha tshitatamende tsha thaidzo fhedzi hu kha ḓi vha nga ngomu ha thevhekano ya pfuma ya u bindula zwenezwo a zwo bvi kha zwithu zwa ndeme zwa sialala zwa tshitshavha. Musi zwiṱokofela zwi tshi ḓivhadzwa nga thevhekano thakhulwa ya pfuma, tshitshavha tsha Esihlengeni tshi kha ḓi dzhia u bva kha kuvhonele kwa mvelo kwa ḽifhasi ku vha ṋekedzaho kupfesesele kwo fhambanaho lwa ikonomi yo ḓisendekaho nga kholomo – nḓila ine ya vha tendela u shuma nyitelatherelo dzavho zwi themendelaho tsireledzo na u bvelaphanḓa ha vhutshilo – u itela u pfesesa ḽifhasi ḽavho. U omelela kha ndeme ya kholomo kha tshitshavha itshi sa tshililo tshavho tsha u tendelwa u vha hone na u dzhielwa nṱha sa vhathu vhane vha kona u ḓihumbulela. Ndi pendela nga u amba uri u itela u pfesesa tshoṱhe tshitshavha itshi ri tea u dzhia kuvhonele kwa zwa mvumbo ro khwaṱhisa uri ri sa tou vha na nḓila nthihi fhedzi ya u vha hone. Tshitshavha tsha Esihlengeni zwenezwo tshi ri fha thyori ya ikonomi yo ḓisendekaho nga vhutshilo ho fhelelaho – hezwo zwi dzhiela nṱha zwa muvhili na zwa khumbulelwa u khwaṱhisedza u bvelaphanḓa ha vhutshilo. Zwenezwo, tshitshavha tsha Esihlengeni tshi tea u dzhiiwa sa tshifhiwa tsho tewaho nga dzindivhuwo. / Anthropology and Archaeology / D. Phil. (Anthropology)

Since the 1950s modernization theory predicted within the Third World a trajectory for social evolution and development mirroring perceived social and developmental evolution in Western societies since the 17th Century. Despite this theory being much discredited in both Western societies and the developing world; this theory still forms the basis for much analysis and policy formulation within post-1990 South Africa. This thesis looks at various aspects of urban black South Africans' existence and concludes that African tradition has found a place within an urban existence due to it's flexibility in dealing with peoples' daily challenges. An urban existence can thus no-longer be thought of as supplanting tradition in favour of western influences, but rather as bringing about a mixture of western and traditional influences - with positive and negative theoretical and practical developmental consequences / Development Studies / M.A.