Rockfill columns have been used to stabilize the clay riverbanks in the Winnipeg area for over two decades. The construction methods used in Manitoba are uniquely adapted to the local soil conditions. The performance of rockfill columns in Manitoba has generally been satisfactory, except that in some cases significant deformations have occurred during and after construction (Yarechewski and Tallin 2003). This thesis will discuss the full-scale test loading of a riverbank that was stabilized with rockfill columns. The purpose of the test was to measure the load-deformation characteristics of a reinforced slope in order to further the understanding of rockfill column behaviour. Rockfill column technology has evolved from granular shear key methods for stabilizing slopes. The relatively weak and soft lacustrine clay is reinforced with compacted columns of stronger and stiffer limestone rockfill. The research test site is located along the natural banks of the Red River in The City of Winnipeg. The project involved an extensive site investigation, and soils characterization program in preparation for the field test. Eleven columns, 2.1 m in diameter were tested by surcharging the slope with 1920 tonnes of fill. The deformations were measured with standard and in-place inclinometers while the porewater pressure response of the in-situ soils was continuously monitored with vibrating wire piezometers. The research further investigated the mobilization of resistance along the length of the rockfill columns with finite element models. The analysis of the model results illustrated the mobilization of shear resistance within the rockfill and the development of stresses across the column cross section. The important engineering characteristics of rockfill are discussed in the context of rockfill column design and the importance of effective compaction is highlighted. The results of this research are used to develop recommendations for rockfill column design, analysis and construction.

Rockfill columns have been used to stabilize the clay riverbanks in the Winnipeg area for over two decades. The construction methods used in Manitoba are uniquely adapted to the local soil conditions. The performance of rockfill columns in Manitoba has generally been satisfactory, except that in some cases significant deformations have occurred during and after construction (Yarechewski and Tallin 2003). This thesis will discuss the full-scale test loading of a riverbank that was stabilized with rockfill columns. The purpose of the test was to measure the load-deformation characteristics of a reinforced slope in order to further the understanding of rockfill column behaviour. Rockfill column technology has evolved from granular shear key methods for stabilizing slopes. The relatively weak and soft lacustrine clay is reinforced with compacted columns of stronger and stiffer limestone rockfill. The research test site is located along the natural banks of the Red River in The City of Winnipeg. The project involved an extensive site investigation, and soils characterization program in preparation for the field test. Eleven columns, 2.1 m in diameter were tested by surcharging the slope with 1920 tonnes of fill. The deformations were measured with standard and in-place inclinometers while the porewater pressure response of the in-situ soils was continuously monitored with vibrating wire piezometers. The research further investigated the mobilization of resistance along the length of the rockfill columns with finite element models. The analysis of the model results illustrated the mobilization of shear resistance within the rockfill and the development of stresses across the column cross section. The important engineering characteristics of rockfill are discussed in the context of rockfill column design and the importance of effective compaction is highlighted. The results of this research are used to develop recommendations for rockfill column design, analysis and construction.

Stone column technique is mostly used to reinforce soft cohesive soils. Settlements are decreased under foundations and bearing capacity is increased. This study initially focuses on a comprehensive review of literature about stone column reinforced soils. Afterwards, numerical modeling of stone column reinforced soft clays is done. Three different cases are chosen on different foundation soils mainly soft clays. Parametric studies are done to determine influence of parameters on settlement reduction ratio under three different foundation conditions. Analyses are converted to two dimensional conditions and this conversion is also compared within the scope of this study. Settlement reduction ratio response to variation in parameters revealed similar results under three different foundation conditions.

This study uses a 3D finite element program, calibrated with the results of a full scale instrumented load test on a limited size footing, to estimate the settlement improvement factor for footings resting on rammed aggregate pier groups. A simplified 3D finite element model (Composite Soil Model) was developed, which takes into account the increase of stiffness around the piers during the ramming process. Design charts for settlement improvement factors of square footings of different sizes (B = 2.4m to 4.8m) resting on aggregate pier groups of different area ratios (AR = 0.087 to 0.349), pier moduli (Ecolumn = 36MPa to 72MPa), and with various compressible clay layer strengths (cu = 20kPa to 60kPa) and thicknesses (L = 5m to 15m) were prepared using this calibrated 3D finite element model. It was found that, the settlement improvement factor increases as the area ratio, pier modulus and footing pressure increase. On the other hand, the settlement improvement factor is observed to decrease as the undrained shear strength and thickness of compressible clay and footing size increase. After using the model to study the behaviour of floating piers, it was concluded that, the advantage of using end bearing piers instead of floating piers for reducing settlements increases as the area ratio of piers increases, the elasticity modulus value of the piers increases, the thickness of the compressible clay layer decreases and the undrained shear strength of the compressible clay decreases.

ABSTRACT A LABORATORY MODEL STUDY ON SETTLEMENT REDUCTION Effect OF STONE COLUMNS IN SOFT CLAY S&uuml / nnetcioglu, Mehmet Emrah M.Sc., Department of Civil Engineering Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Mehmet Ufuk Ergun August 2012, 177 pages An experimental study was conducted in order to examine settlement reduction ratios of footing supported by both floating and end bearing type of stone columns. For the floating types, tests were done with varying column lengths of one and two widths of footing (L=B,2B). Tests were conducted in 200 mm* 200 mm* 200 mm cubic loading tanks. The reinforcement effect was achieved by the installation of four stone columns with 20 mm diameter under 70 mm* 70mm model footing. Parameters such as area replacement ratio (a_s), loading plate dimensions, consolidation and vertical pressures applied, and the relative density (D_R) of the granular column were kept constant, the column length (L) was set as the only variable in the experimental tests conducted. In the tests, footing settlements together with subsurface settlements at depths equal to footing width (B) and two times the footing width (2B) were measured by specially designed telltales. The settlement reduction ratios both at surface and subsurface were evaluated in order to determine the effect of column length on settlement improvement. It has been found out that as the column length increases the settlement reduction ratios decrease for all depth intervals. However, there exists a threshold column length (L=2B), beyond which the composite ground demonstrates little settlement improvement.

Despite the developments in the last decades, field performance information for short aggregate pier improved ground is needed for future design and to develop a better understanding of the performance of the short (floating) aggregate piers. A full-scale field study was performed to investigate the floating aggregate pier behavior in a soft clayey soil. Site investigations included five boreholes and sampling, four CPT soundings, and SPT and laboratory testing. The soil profile consisted of 8m thick compressible clay overlying weathered rock. Four large plate load test stations were prepared. A rigid steel footing having plan dimensions of 3.0m by 3.5m were used for loading. Four 65cm diameter reaction piles and steel cross beams were used to load the soil in each station. First test comprised of loading the untreated soil up to 250 kPa with increments, and monitoring the surface settlements. Moreover, distribution of settlements with depth is recorded by means of deep settlement gages installed prior to loading. Other three tests were conducted on clay soil improved by rammed aggregate piers. In each station, seven stone columns were installed, having a diameter of 65cm, area ratio of 0.25, placed in a triangular pattern with a center to center spacing of 1.25m. The length of the columns were 3m, 5m in the two station resembling floating columns, and 8m in the last station to simulate end bearing columns to observe the level of the improvement in the floating columns. Field instrumentations included surface and deep settlement gages, and load cell placed on a aggregate pier to determine distribution of the applied vertical stress between the column and the natural soil , thus to find magnitude of the stress concentration factor, n , in end bearing and floating aggregate piers. It has been found that, the presence of floating aggregate piers reduce settlements, revealing that major improvement in the settlements takes place at relatively short column lengths. It has been also found that the stress concentration factor is not constant, but varies depending on the magnitude of the applied stress. The magnitude of stress concentration factor varies over a range from 2.1 to 5.6 showing a decreasing trend with increasing vertical stress.

O dimensionamento de fundações apoiadas sobre solos reforçados por colunas representa um desafio devido à natureza composta do mesmo e à grande quantidade de inclusões envolvidas no processo de reforço. Do ponto de vista do cálculo da capacidade de carga, as metodologias de dimensionamento propostas na literatura tratam ou de cálculos empíricos, ou de cálculos analíticos para carregamentos puramente verticais, ou utilizam o método de elementos finitos através de análises elasto-plásticas incrementais. No presente trabalho estuda-se, através da análise limite, a capacidade de carga de fundações superficiais apoiadas sobre solos argilosos reforçados por colunas submetidas a cargas inclinadas. Assim, este trabalho constitui uma primeira referência em analisar o efeito do reforço no diagrama de interação que relaciona às componentes da carga. Inicialmente, realizou-se uma análise em estado plano de deformação para um solo reforçado por uma coluna isolada. Foram construídos campos de tensões lineares por trecho, estaticamente admissíveis e que satisfazem o critério de resistência, determinando limites inferiores da capacidade de carga. Trata-se da abordagem estática da análise limite. Na sequência, através da utilização de mecanismos de ruptura cinematicamente admissíveis, foram encontrados limites superiores da capacidade de carga. Trata-se da abordagem cinemática da análise limite. A construção de ábacos permitiu realizar um estudo paramétrico da melhora da capacidade de carga em função dos parâmetros adimensionais, definidos pela geometria e propriedades de resistência. Finalmente, realizou-se uma generalização à situação de um solo reforçado por um grupo de colunas, em estado plano de deformação, mediante a aplicação da abordagem estática e cinemática da análise limite e posterior estudo paramétrico. Os resultados mostraram que, a medida que aumenta a componente horizontal da força, a componente vertical de ruptura diminui. Este fato constitui um risco na edificação de estruturas submetidas a carregamentos inclinados. Os parâmetros adimensionais que controlam a capacidade de carga são: o ângulo de atrito interno do material de reforço e a relação entre o intercepto coesivo do reforço e do solo. Foi encontrado que, para fins práticos, a carga limite é independente da quantidade de colunas, sempre que o volume de reforço seja mantido. / From a practical engineering viewpoint, design of column-reinforced foundations turns to be a challenging task owing to the strong heterogeneity of the geo-composite resulting from the association of native soft soil and the reinforcing soil columns. The design procedures conceived to estimate bearing capacity improvement from this reinforcement technique have mainly dealt with foundations under vertical loading. The purpose of the present work is to investigate the ultimate bearing capacity problem of column-reinforced foundations under inclined loading, within the framework of limit analysis theory. Special emphasis is given to the effect of reinforcement on the interaction diagram relating the foundation load components. Starting from the situation of an isolated column, a lower bound solution for the bearing capacity is derived, in plain strain analysis, by considering statically admissible piecewise linear stress fields that comply with the failure condition everywhere in the foundation soil. On the other hand, the kinematic approach of limit analysis makes it possible, through the implementation of failure mechanisms on the column-reinforced structure, to derive upper bound estimates of the bearing capacity for each value of the inclination angle of applied load. The semi-analytical expressions of both lower and upper bound estimates allow for a parametric study on the improvement of the bearing capacity as a function of dimensionless parameters, which are defined from geometrical and strength properties. In this context, design charts are presented to provide an insight into the reinforcement mechanism. Finally, the generalization of the approaches to the situation of a soil reinforced by a group of columns is presented, considering plain strain analysis. As soon as the horizontal component of the force increases, the vertical component of the bearing capacity decreases. This fact constitutes a risk for structures submitted to inclined loading. The dimensionless parameters that control the bearing capacity are: the reinforcement material friction angle and the relation between the coesion intercept of the reinforcement and the soil. For practical purposes, the bearing capacity doesn’t depend on the column number, but on the reinforcement volume.

O dimensionamento de fundações apoiadas sobre solos reforçados por colunas representa um desafio devido à natureza composta do mesmo e à grande quantidade de inclusões envolvidas no processo de reforço. Do ponto de vista do cálculo da capacidade de carga, as metodologias de dimensionamento propostas na literatura tratam ou de cálculos empíricos, ou de cálculos analíticos para carregamentos puramente verticais, ou utilizam o método de elementos finitos através de análises elasto-plásticas incrementais. No presente trabalho estuda-se, através da análise limite, a capacidade de carga de fundações superficiais apoiadas sobre solos argilosos reforçados por colunas submetidas a cargas inclinadas. Assim, este trabalho constitui uma primeira referência em analisar o efeito do reforço no diagrama de interação que relaciona às componentes da carga. Inicialmente, realizou-se uma análise em estado plano de deformação para um solo reforçado por uma coluna isolada. Foram construídos campos de tensões lineares por trecho, estaticamente admissíveis e que satisfazem o critério de resistência, determinando limites inferiores da capacidade de carga. Trata-se da abordagem estática da análise limite. Na sequência, através da utilização de mecanismos de ruptura cinematicamente admissíveis, foram encontrados limites superiores da capacidade de carga. Trata-se da abordagem cinemática da análise limite. A construção de ábacos permitiu realizar um estudo paramétrico da melhora da capacidade de carga em função dos parâmetros adimensionais, definidos pela geometria e propriedades de resistência. Finalmente, realizou-se uma generalização à situação de um solo reforçado por um grupo de colunas, em estado plano de deformação, mediante a aplicação da abordagem estática e cinemática da análise limite e posterior estudo paramétrico. Os resultados mostraram que, a medida que aumenta a componente horizontal da força, a componente vertical de ruptura diminui. Este fato constitui um risco na edificação de estruturas submetidas a carregamentos inclinados. Os parâmetros adimensionais que controlam a capacidade de carga são: o ângulo de atrito interno do material de reforço e a relação entre o intercepto coesivo do reforço e do solo. Foi encontrado que, para fins práticos, a carga limite é independente da quantidade de colunas, sempre que o volume de reforço seja mantido. / From a practical engineering viewpoint, design of column-reinforced foundations turns to be a challenging task owing to the strong heterogeneity of the geo-composite resulting from the association of native soft soil and the reinforcing soil columns. The design procedures conceived to estimate bearing capacity improvement from this reinforcement technique have mainly dealt with foundations under vertical loading. The purpose of the present work is to investigate the ultimate bearing capacity problem of column-reinforced foundations under inclined loading, within the framework of limit analysis theory. Special emphasis is given to the effect of reinforcement on the interaction diagram relating the foundation load components. Starting from the situation of an isolated column, a lower bound solution for the bearing capacity is derived, in plain strain analysis, by considering statically admissible piecewise linear stress fields that comply with the failure condition everywhere in the foundation soil. On the other hand, the kinematic approach of limit analysis makes it possible, through the implementation of failure mechanisms on the column-reinforced structure, to derive upper bound estimates of the bearing capacity for each value of the inclination angle of applied load. The semi-analytical expressions of both lower and upper bound estimates allow for a parametric study on the improvement of the bearing capacity as a function of dimensionless parameters, which are defined from geometrical and strength properties. In this context, design charts are presented to provide an insight into the reinforcement mechanism. Finally, the generalization of the approaches to the situation of a soil reinforced by a group of columns is presented, considering plain strain analysis. As soon as the horizontal component of the force increases, the vertical component of the bearing capacity decreases. This fact constitutes a risk for structures submitted to inclined loading. The dimensionless parameters that control the bearing capacity are: the reinforcement material friction angle and the relation between the coesion intercept of the reinforcement and the soil. For practical purposes, the bearing capacity doesn’t depend on the column number, but on the reinforcement volume.

O dimensionamento de fundações apoiadas sobre solos reforçados por colunas representa um desafio devido à natureza composta do mesmo e à grande quantidade de inclusões envolvidas no processo de reforço. Do ponto de vista do cálculo da capacidade de carga, as metodologias de dimensionamento propostas na literatura tratam ou de cálculos empíricos, ou de cálculos analíticos para carregamentos puramente verticais, ou utilizam o método de elementos finitos através de análises elasto-plásticas incrementais. No presente trabalho estuda-se, através da análise limite, a capacidade de carga de fundações superficiais apoiadas sobre solos argilosos reforçados por colunas submetidas a cargas inclinadas. Assim, este trabalho constitui uma primeira referência em analisar o efeito do reforço no diagrama de interação que relaciona às componentes da carga. Inicialmente, realizou-se uma análise em estado plano de deformação para um solo reforçado por uma coluna isolada. Foram construídos campos de tensões lineares por trecho, estaticamente admissíveis e que satisfazem o critério de resistência, determinando limites inferiores da capacidade de carga. Trata-se da abordagem estática da análise limite. Na sequência, através da utilização de mecanismos de ruptura cinematicamente admissíveis, foram encontrados limites superiores da capacidade de carga. Trata-se da abordagem cinemática da análise limite. A construção de ábacos permitiu realizar um estudo paramétrico da melhora da capacidade de carga em função dos parâmetros adimensionais, definidos pela geometria e propriedades de resistência. Finalmente, realizou-se uma generalização à situação de um solo reforçado por um grupo de colunas, em estado plano de deformação, mediante a aplicação da abordagem estática e cinemática da análise limite e posterior estudo paramétrico. Os resultados mostraram que, a medida que aumenta a componente horizontal da força, a componente vertical de ruptura diminui. Este fato constitui um risco na edificação de estruturas submetidas a carregamentos inclinados. Os parâmetros adimensionais que controlam a capacidade de carga são: o ângulo de atrito interno do material de reforço e a relação entre o intercepto coesivo do reforço e do solo. Foi encontrado que, para fins práticos, a carga limite é independente da quantidade de colunas, sempre que o volume de reforço seja mantido. / From a practical engineering viewpoint, design of column-reinforced foundations turns to be a challenging task owing to the strong heterogeneity of the geo-composite resulting from the association of native soft soil and the reinforcing soil columns. The design procedures conceived to estimate bearing capacity improvement from this reinforcement technique have mainly dealt with foundations under vertical loading. The purpose of the present work is to investigate the ultimate bearing capacity problem of column-reinforced foundations under inclined loading, within the framework of limit analysis theory. Special emphasis is given to the effect of reinforcement on the interaction diagram relating the foundation load components. Starting from the situation of an isolated column, a lower bound solution for the bearing capacity is derived, in plain strain analysis, by considering statically admissible piecewise linear stress fields that comply with the failure condition everywhere in the foundation soil. On the other hand, the kinematic approach of limit analysis makes it possible, through the implementation of failure mechanisms on the column-reinforced structure, to derive upper bound estimates of the bearing capacity for each value of the inclination angle of applied load. The semi-analytical expressions of both lower and upper bound estimates allow for a parametric study on the improvement of the bearing capacity as a function of dimensionless parameters, which are defined from geometrical and strength properties. In this context, design charts are presented to provide an insight into the reinforcement mechanism. Finally, the generalization of the approaches to the situation of a soil reinforced by a group of columns is presented, considering plain strain analysis. As soon as the horizontal component of the force increases, the vertical component of the bearing capacity decreases. This fact constitutes a risk for structures submitted to inclined loading. The dimensionless parameters that control the bearing capacity are: the reinforcement material friction angle and the relation between the coesion intercept of the reinforcement and the soil. For practical purposes, the bearing capacity doesn’t depend on the column number, but on the reinforcement volume.

Stone column treatment is commonly used to mitigate liquefaction hazard in sandy soils. Research and experience indicate that this method is effective for clean sands but that it may not be effective for silts and sands with fines contents greater than 15-20%. An alternative to the stone column method involves supplementing stone column treatment with pre-fabricated vertical wick drains installed prior to the stone columns installation. Although this method is used in practice, there has not been a formal academic study of its effectiveness. This thesis evaluates seven different case histories where wick drains were used and one where wick drains were not used, for comparison purposes. The site locations varied as well as the soil properties and treatment plans. CPT testing was done at 3 sites and SPT testing was performed at the other 5 sites. CPT data were correlated to SPT data to facilitate comparisons. One of the case histories includes a unique study in which three different variations of the stone column treatment were applied at the same site, providing a direct comparison of the effectiveness of each method. A 26% area replacement ratio (Ar) with drains was determined to be more effective overall than a 26% Ar without drains and more effective in increasing low initial blow counts than the 34% Ar without drains. The areas with drains were more likely to exceed the minimum project criteria consistently throughout the site. Significant scatter were observed in the results and probable causes for the scatter are noted. Final blow count coefficients of variation ranged from 28% to 77%. Increased fines contents required increased Ar in order to maintain similar average final blow counts. Site improvements were evaluated separately and collectively. Individual site results were compared to clean sand curves developed by Baez (1995). Sites with average fines contents less than 20% which were improved using drains and an 11-15% Ar treatment were comparable to clean sand sites without drains and with 5-10% Ar. To achieve similar improvement at sites with 40-46% fines necessitated drains and Ar values of 23-26%. Design recommendations are provided.