The present study tests a reinforcement model for sex differences in depression. This study examines Biglan, Rothlind, Hops, and Sherman's (1989) hypothesis that although distressed and aggressive behaviors both induce negative emotions in others, the reactions to these behaviors are different: aggressive behavior prompts hostile reactions, whereas distressed behavior prompts solicitousness and deters aggression. Although the Biglan et al. results (1989) indicated that reactions were not influenced by the sex of the person emitting the behavior, this result may be a consequence of the population used. This study examined the hypothesis that reactions of others are influenced by sex-role stereotypes when interactions among acquaintances are evaluated. Two hundred and eighty eight college students rated videotaped scenarios in terms of their feelings and reactions toward a male or female acquaintance engaging in distressed, aggressive, or neutral behavior. The findings; support the hypothesis proposed by Biglan that distressed and aggressive behaviors both induced negative emotions in others, although they elicited different behavioral reactions. That is, distressed behaviors prompted supportive and comforting reactions, whereas aggressive behaviors elicited more hostile, argumentative, and avoiding reactions. This study provides further support for the negative reinforcement hypothesis that proposes that distressed behavior induces negative feelings in others; however, at the same time it prompts others to be solicitous and caring and to refrain from aggressive behaviors (Biglan et al., 1989). However, contrary to expectations, no sex differences were found in the reactions to distressed and aggressive behavior despite the use of methodology more conducive to examining gender specific responses. At this point, the most parsimonious explanation for the findings is that the effect is real, yet small and not very robust. / Department of Psychological Science

Thesis (MA (Psychology))--University of Stellenbosch, 2005. / The primary aim of this study was to determine the content and number of fears expressed by 1st year students at a tertiary institution both retrospectively and currently. The expressed retrospective profile aimed to determine the content and number of fears recalled by the sample group when they were six years old. The expressed current profile aimed to determine the content and number of fears currently being experienced. The study also aimed to establish whether there were significant gender differences in the two profiles. This study found that there were no significant differences between males and females in terms of content or number of expressed fears for the retrospective profile. Both groups indicated the most reported fears for Dark/Night, followed by fears of People and Animals, although in different rank orders. The fears were of a specific nature as the five highest ranked categories accounted for almost 70% of the fears expressed. In addition, the actual fear profile of pre-school children as found by Loxton (2004) was compared to the retrospective fear profile as the sample group recalled it. This study confirmed Loxton’s findings as the three highest ranked categories of the retrospective expressed profile covered the five highest ranked categories in the actual profile. This study found that males and females shared four of the five most common ranked fears for the current expressed profile, namely Failure, Harm to Others, Animals and Future. This study did not confirm the expected decline in animal fears as predicted by the literature, but the other fears would appear to comply with the body of research for the content of the late adolescents’ expressed fears. These fears were more diverse in nature and the ten highest ranked categories accounted for about 70% of the fears expressed. Statistically significant gender differences were found in terms of Dark/Night, Being Alone, Violence/Crime, Separation and Relational Problems. The expected decline in the number of expressed fears was not confirmed as the average number of fears per participant increased slightly from the retrospective profile to the current profile. There was no significant difference with regard to gender. The secondary aim of this study was to establish whether any of the expressed fears have remained constant from the retrospective profile to the current profile. The fear of Animals appeared to be one fear that, rather than decline with age, remained stable. Other fears that appeared to show continuity were related to Harm to Self and Harm to Others. Fear of Being Alone appeared in both the retrospective and current expressed profiles for females only. A fear that was indicated in the literature to be relevant at the late adolescent stage of development was the fear of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. This study found no evidence to support these predictions, which is a thought-provoking problem. Although beyond the scope of this study, the implications of this apparent lack of fear for a life-threatening problem of epidemic proportions particularly for this age group, is of concern.

No description available.

Academic stress and the causes of such stress are subjects that are found in very few studies concerning student-athletes. Therefore, the purpose of this quantitative study is to determine how the following variables relate to academic stress and perceived stress either through correlations or differences--demographics, academic classification, major or field of study, athletic scholarship status, and season of sport (in- season/ out of season). An online questionnaire containing a Perceived Stress Scale and a Perception of Academic Stress scale were distributed to 151 student-athlete participants at a university in the southwest United States. The results indicated that biological sex has a significant relationship to perceived stress. No other variables were found significant to perceived stress or academic stress.