Magister Artium (Sport, Recreation and Exercise Science) - MA(SRES) / The job demands of naval members are such that they experience high levels of stress. Stress is often introduced during military training so that real-world stress is more familiar and easy to mitigate. This is often referred to as “train how you fight”. In order to train a stressful task, a stressful environment is often created in the military. The aim of the study was to develop a standardised appraisal tool for the Therapeutic Recreation Stress Management Intervention Model measuring stress, stress coping and leisure behaviour of military staff in the South African context. This study utilised a qualitative research design and followed a multi stage procedure in developing the appraisal tool while making use of the model of instrument development to achieve the aim. The model identified four stages of instrument development: Phase 1, preliminary phase; Phase 2, questionnaire development, Phase 3 pilot testing, Phase 4 Evaluation phase. For the purpose and scope of this study, the researcher focused on phases 1 and 2. Phase 1, the Preliminary phase focused on the translation of the study needs into variables, current literature, interviews and focus group discussions. Three focus groups comprised of eight participants per group and were purposefully selected from military naval staff. In addition, semi-structured interview guides were used for interviews conducted with key informants. Five senior officers and two psychologists from the Institute of Maritime Medicine (IMM) were interviewed. Data was analysed deductively due to the existence of pre-determined themes. In Phase 2, based on the data collected in phase 1, the researcher developed the appraisal tool. The appraisal tool was constructed within the scope of the theoretical framework focusing on the perceptions of naval staff on stress; previous and current leisure experiences; knowledge, skills, resources, behaviour; leisure-coping beliefs; and stress- coping strategies. The literature in the present study revealed that there were six pre-determined themes. The themes included: Theme 1 – Stressors in the military, Theme 2 –support in the military, Theme 3- operational deployment of military members, Theme 4- Impact of stress on military families have been identified as theme four, Theme 5- leadership and Theme 6- sport and recreation in the military. Salient topics included the following: Stress assessment salient topics are personal stress, occupational stress, wellness and operational deployment. Leisure behaviour salient topics include social activities, passive activities, physical activities and outdoor activities. The findings in the study revealed that stress had an adverse effect on military readiness and the wellbeing of staff. This study reiterated the need for greater attention in the rendering of support services needed to military members and their families, preparing families for separation and improved communication between deployed soldiers and the home front. Job-induced separations affect not only the soldier and the spouse, but also their children. The role of the supervisor played a large part in how satisfied and committed the members were regarding their job. Sport and Recreation programs are vital to alleviate the symptoms of stress. The appraisal tool developed needs to be piloted and evaluated in order to recommend it for use in SANDF information systems.

This study examined effectiveness of heart rate variability (HRV) biofeedback-assisted stress management training in reducing anxiety and stress in pregnant women and the effect of maternal stress management skills practice on fetal heart rate measures in real time. Participants were seven working pregnant women who volunteered in response to recruitment announcements and invitations from cooperating midwives. Reported state and trait anxiety and pregnancy specific stress were measured during five 45- to 50-minute training sessions. Training included bibliotherapy, instruction in the use of emotion-focused stress management techniques, and HRV biofeedback. Subjects used portable biofeedback units for home practice and were encouraged to practice the skills for 20 minutes a day and for short periods of time during stressful life events. At the end of training, fetal heart rate was monitored and concurrent maternal HRV measures were recorded. Repeated measures ANOVA and paired samples t-test analysis of study data revealed no statistically significant reductions in state or trait anxiety measures or in pregnancy specific stress measures. Partial eta squared (n²) and Cohen's d calculations found small to medium effect sizes on the various test scales. Friedman's analysis of variance of biofeedback measures showed a statistically significant decrease in low HRV coherence scores (X2 = 10.53, p = .03) and medium HRV coherence scores (X2 = 11.58, p = .02) and a statistically significant increase in high HRV coherence scores (X2 = 18.16, p = .001). This change is an indication of improved autonomic function. Results of concurrent maternal and fetal HRV recordings were generally inconclusive. A qualitative discussion of individual subject results is included. During follow-up interviews five subjects reported that they felt they were better able to cope with stress at the end of the study than at the beginning, that they used the stress management skills during labor, and that they continue to practice the skills in their daily lives.

A stress management intervention was developed and integrated into the services provided by one of the nation's largest outplacement consultants. The purpose of the intervention was to aid outplacement clients in the management and resolution of stress associated with job loss and career transition. Based on the results of this study, the intervention had the effect of helping treatment participants maintain their levels of effective coping when compared to nonparticipants. This study supports the hypothesis that stress management training can be helpful for unemployed individuals and may impact their emotional well-being as they go through the job search process.

This research focuses on the concept of occupational stress. Theories and models are discussed in an attempt to highlight the nature of stress and its implications for the individual if it is not effectively managed. Individual differences in the way they experience strain and cope with stress are considered, as well as the organisational implications of stress. Current thinking in the management of stress programmes is highlighted. The empirical study was conducted to determine whether there are differences between various organisational subgroups with regard to variables relating to occupational stress, strain and coping, as measured by the Occupational Stress Inventory - Revised (Osipow, 1998). The findings of the study show that there are significant differences between seniority, age, race and gender subgroups within the accounting organisation in which the research took place, with regard to stress, strain and coping / Industrial Psychology / M.A. (Industrial and Organisational Psychology)

Individual distress in the work-place has been cited as the cause of enormous loss of productivity and income, and has therefore attracted much attention from researchers and therapists alike. However, an extensive literature study reveals that in the field of work-related distress and its management, there appears to be discontinuity, a diversity of opinion and even confusion with regard to definitions, causes and possible remedies for the problem. It is suggested that this situation has been brought about and is being perpetuated by the Newtonian/Cartesian epistemological foundation on which most thinking in the field is based. It is further suggested that an epistemology informed by ecosystemic, constructivist principles could facilitate a way of thinking which would be more useful in this context. A case study was done in accordance with the above-mentioned ideas, which served as an investigation of their usefulness in a situation of reported work-related stress. On the basis of the information which emerged from the study, it is concluded that an ecosystemic approach can indeed provide a useful basis for understanding such situations. Furthermore, it is suggested that there are certain commonalities between such situations which are primarily founded in contexts in which the individual finds himself faced with contradictory demands which are not acknowledged as such. Finally, the point is made that if, in accordance with a constructivist viewpoint, "stress" is understood to be a social construction rather than an absolute condition, then the traditional way of thinking provides us with descriptions of man, society and the relationship between them, which are negative and may also be reflexively destructive. However, since constructivism allows for a different construction to be brought forth, we may utilise ecosystemic thinking to provide a more optimistic view. / Psychology / D. Litt. et Phil. (Psychology)

by Willow Yuen-Shan Chan. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 1998. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 98-108). / Text in English; abstract also in Chinese. / by Willow Yuen-Shan Chan. / Acknowledgment --- p.ii / Abstract --- p.iii / List of tables --- p.viii / List of figures --- p.ix / Chapter CHAPTER 1 --- INTRODUCTION --- p.1 / Chapter 1.1 --- Background and Problem of the Investigation --- p.1 / Chapter 1.2 --- Purpose of the Investigation --- p.2 / Chapter 1.3 --- Significance of the Investigation --- p.2 / Chapter CHAPTER 2 --- LITERATURE REVIEW --- p.4 / Chapter 2.1 --- Adolescent Stress --- p.4 / Chapter 2.1.1 --- Various types of stress in adolescence --- p.4 / Chapter 2.1.2 --- Adolescent Problems --- p.5 / Chapter 2.2 --- Adolescent Coping --- p.7 / Chapter 2.2.1 --- Coping in the Anticipation Stage of Exam --- p.8 / Chapter 2.2.2 --- Gender Differences in Coping --- p.9 / Chapter 2.2.3 --- The Relationship between Achievement and Coping --- p.10 / Chapter 2.2.4 --- Effectiveness of Coping on Adaptational Outcomes --- p.11 / Chapter 2.3 --- Personal and Situational Factors in Relation to Coping --- p.12 / Chapter 2.3.1 --- Personal Factors in Relation to Coping --- p.13 / Chapter 2.3.2 --- Situational Appraisals in Relation to Coping --- p.18 / Chapter 2.4 --- Multivariate Models of Coping --- p.21 / Chapter 2.5 --- The COPE Inventory --- p.21 / Chapter 2.6 --- Summary of Literature Review --- p.24 / Chapter CHAPTER 3: --- THE PRESENT INVESTIGATION --- p.27 / Chapter 3.1 --- The Present Investigation --- p.27 / Chapter 3.2 --- The rationale of investigation --- p.28 / Chapter CHAPTER 4 --- STUDY I: VALIDATION OF CONSTRUCTS --- p.29 / Chapter 4.1 --- The aim of study 1 --- p.29 / Chapter 4.2 --- Method --- p.30 / Chapter 4.2.1 --- Subjects --- p.30 / Chapter 4.2.2 --- Measures --- p.30 / Chapter 4.2.3 --- Procedures --- p.34 / Chapter 4.3 --- Results --- p.34 / Chapter 4.3.1 --- Descriptive and Psychometric Properties of Scales --- p.35 / Chapter 4.3.2 --- Exam Stress and Coping in the Anticipation of Public Exam --- p.37 / Chapter 4.3.3 --- Exploratory Factor Analysis --- p.38 / Chapter 4.3.4 --- Evaluation of Single Latent Construct Measurement Models --- p.41 / Chapter 4.3.5 --- Evaluation of Measurement Models --- p.45 / Chapter 4.4 --- DISCUSSION --- p.47 / Chapter 4.4.1 --- Exam Stress --- p.47 / Chapter 4.4.2 --- Coping in the Anticipation of Public Exam --- p.47 / Chapter 4.4.3 --- Psychometric Characteristics of Constructs --- p.47 / Chapter 4.4.4 --- "Conceptual Differences of Family versus. Friend Support, and Internal versus External Outcome Controllability" --- p.48 / Chapter CHAPTER 5 --- STUDY II: MODELING AND GENDER AND SCHOOL BAND DIFFERENCES --- p.49 / Chapter 5.1 --- Framework of study II --- p.49 / Chapter 5.2 --- Three Hypothesized Coping Models --- p.49 / Chapter 5.2.1 --- The Additive Coping Model --- p.50 / Chapter 5.2.2 --- The Mediational Coping Model --- p.50 / Chapter 5.2.3 --- The Full Coping Model --- p.51 / Chapter 5.3 --- The Aim of Study II --- p.51 / Chapter 5.4 --- Method --- p.52 / Chapter 5.4.1 --- Subjects --- p.52 / Chapter 5.4.2 --- Procedures and Measures --- p.53 / Chapter 5.5 --- Results --- p.53 / Chapter 5.5.1 --- The Three Hypothesized Coping Models --- p.53 / Chapter 5.5.2 --- "Gender and School Band Differences in Coping, Support Resources, Situational Appraisals and Psychological Distress" --- p.62 / Chapter 5.5.3 --- Full Coping Model by Gender and by School Band --- p.65 / Chapter 5.6 --- Discussion --- p.73 / Chapter 5.6.1 --- The Transactional Model of Coping --- p.73 / Chapter 5.6.2 --- The Important Influences of Dispositional Traits and Situational Appraisals on Coping and Psychological Distress --- p.74 / Chapter 5.6.3 --- Gender and School Band Differences --- p.75 / Chapter CHAPTER 6 --- STUDY III: LONGITUDINAL STUDY --- p.79 / Chapter 6.1 --- Framework of Study III --- p.79 / Chapter 6.2 --- The Aim of Study III --- p.79 / Chapter 6.3 --- Method --- p.80 / Chapter 6.3.1 --- Subjects --- p.80 / Chapter 6.3.2 --- Procedures and Measures --- p.80 / Chapter 6.4 --- Results --- p.81 / Chapter 6.4.1 --- Casual Relations of Time 1 Coping Constructs and Other Constructs on Time2 Psychological Distress --- p.82 / Chapter 6.4.2 --- Casual Relations of Time 1 Psychological Distress and Other Constructs on Time 2 Coping Constructs --- p.84 / Chapter 6.5 --- Discussion --- p.90 / Chapter 6.5.1 --- Effectiveness of Coping --- p.90 / Chapter 6.5.2 --- Causal Directionality of Coping and Distress --- p.90 / Chapter CHAPTER 7: --- GENERAL DISCUSSION --- p.91 / Chapter 7.1 --- discussion --- p.92 / Chapter 7.1.1 --- Coping as Mediator --- p.92 / Chapter 7.1.2 --- Effectiveness of Active Problem-focused Coping --- p.92 / Chapter 7.1.3 --- Effects of Dispositional Traits --- p.93 / Chapter 7.1.4 --- "Differential Effects of Internal and External Outcome Beliefs, and Family and Friend Support Resources on Coping" --- p.94 / Chapter 7.1.5 --- The Predominant Effect of Causal Influence from Coping to Distress --- p.95 / Chapter 7.2 --- Implications for Intervention --- p.96 / Chapter 7.3 --- Limitations --- p.97 / REFERENCES --- p.98 / Appendix A Sample items of questionnaires for investigation / Appendix B Reliabilities of various scales in pilot study / "Appendix C Tables in Study I, II and III" / Appendix D Figures in Study III

背景 / 「因壓力事件而引發的反覆思索」 (stress-reactive rumination) 是指個人在經歷負性生活事件後不斷在腦海中重覆思索該事件及與該事件相連的負面個人想法。在科學文獻中，這現象初步驗證為其中一項導致情緒低落的認知誘因。 / 研究目的 / 本研究旨在透過模擬「因壓力事件而引發的反覆思索」，增加對此現象在影响情緒方面的理解。 / 研究方法 / 研究對象是三百三十三名沒有抑鬱病病徵的大學生。他們首先寫下一段他們感到情緒低落的個人失敗經歷，並揀選相關的負面思想，然後他們被隨機分成六個實驗組：第一、第二及第三組為「反覆思索實驗組」，第四、第五組為「思想轉移組」，第六組為「文獻對照組」。第一組要求研究對象在五分鐘內不斷投入地反覆誦讀該段個人經歷及相關的負面思想，以達到模擬此現象的效果。第二組要求研究對象除了反覆誦讀上述材料外，還要反問自己「為甚麼心情會弄到如此田地、再這樣持續下去的話對自己的影响」。第三組要求研究對象投入地反覆誦讀與該段個人經歷不相關的負面思想。第四組透過要求研究對象誦讀寫有實物的字咭，以達致思想轉移的效果。第五組要求研究對象誦讀不構成意義、由個別中文單字拼湊而成的中文字串，以達致思想轉移的效果。第六組參照文獻中「因覺察本身低落情緒」而引發的另一類反覆思索，研究對象誦讀相關的提引，例如留意身體在低落情緒時的狀況，及思索低落情緒的成因、意義及影響。 / 研究結果 / 「反覆思索實驗組」的情緒顯著地較實驗前低落，並更焦慮情緒失控，這三組間並沒有明顯的區別。「實物思想轉移組」的情緒顯著地較實驗前改善，並減少對情緒失控的焦慮。在「字串思想轉移組」中，女性研究對象的情緒顯著地較實驗前改善，並減少對情緒失控的焦慮，而男性研究對象的情緒較實驗前並沒有顯著變化，但他們較實驗前更焦慮情緒失控。「文獻對照組」的情緒較實驗前並沒有顯著變化，但此組的男女研究對象較實驗前更焦慮情緒失控。 / 討論 / 此項研究初步確立用實驗形式去檢視「因壓力事件而引發的反覆思索」對低落情緒直接影響的可行性，並為相關論理提供有力的驗證。本文亦探討不同形式的「反覆思索」與抑鬱情緒之間的關係，及在臨牀治療上的應用。 / Background / Stress-reactive rumination (SRR) refers to the tendency to ruminate on negative inferences following stressful events. Previous studies indicated that SRR, in interaction with negative cognitive style, predicted the prospective onset, number and duration of major depressive episodes. Yet, it is under-researched and there is no experimental studies demonstrating its causative role in depressed mood. / Objectives / The current study aims at simulating SRR among a non-clinical sample of undergraduates and assessing its immediate effect on the genesis of depressed feelings. / Method / An experimental paradigm was adopted in which SRR was operationalized in accordance with existing conceptualizations of depression. An initial sample of 544 university students were recruited, and the final analyses included 333 of them who met various inclusion criteria. Each participant was asked to write a sad personal experience of failure and to select thought cards associated with such experience. They were then randomly assigned into one of the six experimental conditions for five minutes. In the SRR Condition, participants ruminated about their sad experience and the associated thoughts by reading them aloud repeatedly. In the Double Rumination Condition, apart from what was required in SRR Condition, participants were asked to read aloud and think about two additional questions that capture the essence of depressive rumination. In the SRR with Unrelated Thoughts Conditions, participants ruminated on thought cards not associated with their respective experience. In the Distraction with Objects Condition, participants focused their attention on common objects. In the Distraction with Chinese Characters Salad Condition, participants read aloud chunks of Chinese characters that formed no cohesive meaning. In the Depressive Rumination Condition, participants were asked to read aloud statements depicting depressive rumination like the symptoms of depression, the causes and the meaning of depression. / Results / As predicted, participants undergoing any one of the SRR conditions reported further mood decline while those in Distraction with Objects Condition reported uplifted mood. A gender difference was found in that after undergoing the Distraction with Chinese Characters Salad Condition, female participants reported uplifted mood and less anxiety about loss of emotional control while the male participants reported more anxiety. / Discussion / Unlike previous studies who measure SRR with a self-administered questionnaire, the current study serves to be the first attempt to operationalize stress-reactive rumination in a laboratory setting and put such construct under an experimental paradigm. Findings lend support to the cognitive attentional syndrome as postulated in Wells' S-REF model and metacognitive theory for emotional disorders, and address some inadequacies of existing conceptualization of depression (e.g., Beck's theories of depression). The adoption of an experimental paradigm provides supplementary evidence for the causal role of SRR in the genesis of depressed feelings. Implications for further research and intervention are discussed. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Detailed summary in vernacular field only. / Chong, Heung Chuen. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2013. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 190-202). / Electronic reproduction. Hong Kong : Chinese University of Hong Kong, [2012] System requirements: Adobe Acrobat Reader. Available via World Wide Web. / Abstracts also in Chinese; appendixes includes Chinese. / Chapter Chapter 1: --- Introduction --- p.1 / Stressful Life Events as Risk Factors for Depression --- p.8 / Negative Cognitive Style as Cognitive Vulnerability for Depression --- p.9 / Self-regulatory Executive Function Model (S-REF) and Metacognitive Theory --- p.13 / Stress Reactive Rumination --- p.24 / Other Related Constructs: Depressive Rumination --- p.29 / Other Related Constructs: Metacognitive Beliefs on Rumination --- p.32 / Current Study --- p.35 / Chapter Chapter 2: --- Method --- p.43 / Design --- p.43 / Participants --- p.47 / Measures --- p.51 / Procedures --- p.59 / Chapter Chapter 3: --- Results --- p.67 / Gender Difference --- p.67 / Analysis of Experimental Effect on Mood State for Male Subjects --- p.77 / Analysis of Experimental Effect on Mood State for Female Subjects --- p.93 / Analysis of Gender Difference on Anxiety over Loss of Emotional Control (AC) after Elicitation of Stressful Events --- p.112 / Analysis of Experimental Effect on Anxiety over Loss of Emotional Control (AC) for Male Subjects --- p.117 / Analysis of Experimental Effect on Anxiety over Loss of Emotional Control for Female Subjects --- p.127 / Restoration of Mood after Debriefing and Mood-uplifting Procedure --- p.137 / Exploratory Factor Analyses with the Scores from Three Mood Visual Analogue Scales (VASs) --- p.141 / Chapter Chapter 4: --- Discussion --- p.154 / Preliminary Evidence for Experimental Simulation of Stress-Reactive Rumination --- p.155 / Stress-Reactive Rumination as a Research Entity --- p.163 / Findings that Warrant Further Exploration --- p.168 / Limitations --- p.176 / Further Research Directions --- p.180 / Clinical Implications --- p.185 / Concluding Comments --- p.188 / References --- p.190 / Appendices --- p.203

This research focuses on the concept of occupational stress. Theories and models are discussed in an attempt to highlight the nature of stress and its implications for the individual if it is not effectively managed. Individual differences in the way they experience strain and cope with stress are considered, as well as the organisational implications of stress. Current thinking in the management of stress programmes is highlighted. The empirical study was conducted to determine whether there are differences between various organisational subgroups with regard to variables relating to occupational stress, strain and coping, as measured by the Occupational Stress Inventory - Revised (Osipow, 1998). The findings of the study show that there are significant differences between seniority, age, race and gender subgroups within the accounting organisation in which the research took place, with regard to stress, strain and coping / Industrial Psychology / M.A. (Industrial and Organisational Psychology)

Individual distress in the work-place has been cited as the cause of enormous loss of productivity and income, and has therefore attracted much attention from researchers and therapists alike. However, an extensive literature study reveals that in the field of work-related distress and its management, there appears to be discontinuity, a diversity of opinion and even confusion with regard to definitions, causes and possible remedies for the problem. It is suggested that this situation has been brought about and is being perpetuated by the Newtonian/Cartesian epistemological foundation on which most thinking in the field is based. It is further suggested that an epistemology informed by ecosystemic, constructivist principles could facilitate a way of thinking which would be more useful in this context. A case study was done in accordance with the above-mentioned ideas, which served as an investigation of their usefulness in a situation of reported work-related stress. On the basis of the information which emerged from the study, it is concluded that an ecosystemic approach can indeed provide a useful basis for understanding such situations. Furthermore, it is suggested that there are certain commonalities between such situations which are primarily founded in contexts in which the individual finds himself faced with contradictory demands which are not acknowledged as such. Finally, the point is made that if, in accordance with a constructivist viewpoint, "stress" is understood to be a social construction rather than an absolute condition, then the traditional way of thinking provides us with descriptions of man, society and the relationship between them, which are negative and may also be reflexively destructive. However, since constructivism allows for a different construction to be brought forth, we may utilise ecosystemic thinking to provide a more optimistic view. / Psychology / D. Litt. et Phil. (Psychology)

A survey instrument, Coaches' Survey, was constructed for the purpose of collecting data for this study. Subjects were selected from the 1989-1990 National Directory of College Athletics. The survey instrument was mailed to 411 coaches; 273 usable instruments were returned. The coaches were asked to indicate their agreement or disagreement with 36 statements in both the Real situation and the Ideal situation. Major findings of the study led to the conclusions that (a) better communication between athletic directors and coaches resulted in better understanding and acceptance of limitations which may be beyond the athletic directors' control, (b) coaching stress was a real concern for the coaches surveyed, (c) the coaches believed that athletic directors should be strong leaders, (d) men have better access to community leaders than do women, (e) coaches generally believe that athletic directors perform adequately even though there are some weaknesses, and (f) the area of concern for most coaches is financial support for their programs. Even when seen as a fact, it was viewed as restricting the strength and growth of programs.