The largest earthquakes occur along the subduction thrust interface known as the seismogenic zone. Until recently, erosive margins like Tonga and Honshu have been thought to be unable to support earthquakes with magnitudes higher than 8.5. However, Mw 9, 2011 Tohoku-oki earthquake in Honshu requires a reevaluation of this notion. The seismic potential of Tonga is likely affected by the vertical spatial extent of the up-dip and down-dip limits, which confines the seismogenic zone. The larger the area of the seismogenic zone, the higher the potential for larger earthquakes. Some models suggest that down-dip limit coincides with the fore-arc Moho while others suggest that they are coincident with thermally controlled mineralogical phase changes during slab descent. Tonga is an ideal place to discriminate between these possibilities, as the incoming Pacific plate is cold and thick with rapid convergence, extending cool isotherms deep into the system. In contrast, the fore-arc Moho is only ~16 km deep. This study tests the hypothesis that the down-dip limit of the Tonga seismogenic zone coincides with the fore-arc Moho and thus ceases the seismicity by initiating a stable sliding between the mantle and the subducting crust. We determine the depth of the down-dip limit in Tonga by mapping the distribution of earthquakes recorded for a six-month period from January 1, 2010 to June 30, 2010 by a deployment of ocean bottom seismographs above the Tonga subduction zone. The earthquakes are located by a combination of grid-search method and least-square inversion of the observed arrival times. We identified a down-dip limit at a minimum depth of about 40 km below the sea level suggesting that the hypothesis is failed. Therefore, the commonly held idea that down-dip limit is coincides with the fore-arc Moho is not true in the Tonga case. It is likely controlled by the degree of serpentinization in the mantle wedge controlling the transition from stick-slip to stable sliding.

Subduction zones, where one tectonic plate descends beneath another, are the most seismically active regions on Earth and have produced the largest earthquakes and some of the most destructive tsunamis ever recorded. Significant questions remain regarding the roles both the downgoing and overriding plates play in contributing to varying styles of rupture along the main seismogenic contact between the two plates, or megathrust, where such great (Mw > 8) earthquakes are generated. In the last few decades, the scientific community has recognized how different structural and compositional properties of both plates, and in particular the hydration state of the incoming plate can contribute to variations in megathrust slip behaviors. In this thesis, I show how marine multichannel seismic (MCS) and ocean-bottom seismometer (OBS) data can be used to investigate structural controls on megathrust slip behavior including the different styles of great earthquakes and/or the generation of slow slip events. Offshore Alaska and Sumatra, we used long-streamer multichannel seismic data to create a high-resolution P-wave velocity (Vp) model of the upper oceanic crust prior to subduction. Using a differential effective medium theory, we place the first constraints on the amounts pore (free) water contained therein. Our results indicate that the uppermost oceanic crust of the incoming plates in both regions is significantly hydrated. Offshore Alaska, we show that pervasive faulting in the bending area allows seawater to penetrate into the uppermost crust. We propose that high water content in uppermost crust might contribute to observations of low coupling along the shallow plate interface in this area through the expulsion of pore fluids. Geochemical analyses of arc lavas in this segment of the Alaska subduction zone suggests significant fluid release from the downgoing crust compared to adjacent segments. Thus, we propose that during subduction, additional bending and high-temperature circulation of remaining pore fluids could further alter the upper oceanic crust that dehydrates around sub-arc depths. Offshore Sumatra, few bending-related faults are observed; however, evidence for significant and homogeneous hydration within the the uppermost crustal layer 2A (extrusives) suggests that plate bending plays a role in the shallow reopening cracks, facilitating the shallow penetration of seawater. In layer 2B (sheeted dikes) just below, our results suggest heterogeneous, yet significant, hydration that we attribute to the slow and diffuse deformation taking place in the Wharton Basin. We speculate that the large amounts of upper-crustal water carried into the Sumatra subduction zone can influence shallow slip behavior, as evidenced by recent records of a long-lasting slow slip event in the area. To further explore potential structural and compositional controls on spatial varia- tions in megathrust slip behavior in Alaska, we use OBS data to create a 3D Vp model of the Alaska Peninsula Subduction zone within a 500-by-400 km wide area with good resolution down to 20-25 km depths in both the incoming and overriding plates. Our model samples two subduction zone segments that exhibit differences in history and style of megathrust rupture. We interpret reductions in seismic velocities within the incoming plate as evidence for modest hydration of the Pacific oceanic plate resulting from a series of fracture zones and the formation of large seamounts and an associated basement swell, or platform. The bathymetry of the seamounts and platform in part modulates the distribution and lithology of subducting sediments across the margin that we propose might influence shallow slip behavior. Within the overriding North American plate, we see evidence for contrasting styles of deformation and variations in composition (i.e., rigidity) that agrees well with observed changes in plate coupling and great earthquake history. These results emphasize the importance of considering not only one, but several factors related to both the incoming and overriding plates which collectively contribute to along-strike and downdip variations in megathrust slip behavior between segments. Our final study looks at the incoming Cocos plate just before it subducts offshore Mexico beneath the North American plate. Here we jointly inverted 2D OBS and long-offset MCS data acquired parallel to the trench to derive a 270 km-long, high-resolution Vp model of the entire oceanic crust and uppermost mantle. We provide the first constraints on the quantities of both free and structural (i.e., mineral-bound) water contained within the Cocos plate outboard of the Guerrero Gap and adjacent segments of the Mexican subduction zone. The Guerrero gap hosts large slow slip events that are commonly explained through the release of water through the dehydration of altered sediments and upper oceanic crust downdip. Strikingly, our results show that while the Cocos plate is hydrated offshore Mexico, nearly all of the water is contained within the upper oceanic crust. Moreover, we see that most of the water by weight is present as free fluids in the pores and that the upper oceanic crust is only moderately altered (0.3-1.3 wt.%) compared to global averages (> 1.5-3 wt.%). While the upper crust appears hydrated everywhere across our profile, we find that ∼30% more water is subducting outboard the Guerrero seismic gap where large seamounts contribute to a thicker extrusive layer and more alteration. This, along with evidence for the subduction of seamounts in Guerrero might help explain observations of weak shallow plate coupling and a greater propensity for slow slip at greater seismogenic depths compared to adjacent segments. These results provide important new constraints on how much pore and structural water is carried in the Cocos plate offshore Mexico. We propose that global estimates of incoming structural water content are not applicable everywhere, as is commonly assumed by petrologic and thermal models. Much less structural water may be needed within the upper oceanic crust just before subduction to explain the occurrence of slow-slip events downdip in some subduction zones.

Beach shoreline retreat induced by coseismic subsidence in the Cascadia subduction zone is an important post-earthquake hazard. Sand on a beach acts as a buffer to wave attack, protecting dunes, bluffs and terraces. The loss of sand from a beach could promote critical erosion of the shoreline. This study was initiated in order to estimate the potential amount of post subsidence shoreline retreat on a regional scale in the Central Cascadia Margin. The study area is a 331 km stretch of coastline from Copalis, Washington to Florence, Oregon. Several erosion models were evaluated, and the Bruun model was selected as the most useful to model shoreline retreat on a regional scale in the Central Cascadia Margin. There are some factors that this model does not address, such as longshore transport of sediment and offshore bottom shape, but for this preliminary study it is useful for estimating regional retreat. The range of parameter input values for the Bruun model include: the depth of closure (h) range from 15 m to 20 m water depth; the cross-shore distance (L) range from 846 m to 5975 m; and the estimated subsidence amount (S) range from O m to 1.5 m. The minimum to maximum range of post-subsidence shoreline retreat is 142 to 531 m in the Columbia River cell, 56 to 128 m in the Cannon Beach cell, 38 to 149 m in the Tillamook cell, 25 to 91 m in the Pacific City cell, 11 to 126 m in the Lincoln City cell, 30 to 147 m in the Otter Rock cell, 0 to 165 m in the Newport cell, 0 to 76 m in the Waldport cell, and 0 m in the Winchester cell. Results of the study suggest that many of the beaches in the study area are at risk of beach and personal property loss. Beach communities could limit the amount of potential damage in these areas through coastal zone planning.

Cette thèse présente les résultats et conclusions issues d’une série de modèles analogiques de systèmes de compressif à différentes échelles : Les expériences réalisées à l’échelle crustale montrent que la symétrie de structures compressives, de type plis et chevauchements avec 3 niveaux de décollement, est fortement dépendante de la vitesse de sédimentation. Les résultats ont été appliqués au Subandin Bolivien. Les expériences réalisées à l’échelle lithosphérique simulent la subduction et l’extension arrière-arc dans un système subissant une compression parallèle à la marge continent-océan (COB). Ces modèles démontrent que la différence de densité entre les plaques continentales et océaniques est le paramètre clé pour expliquer l'extension arrière-arc: plus petite est la différence de densité, plus faible est l'extension produite. Les résultats ont été appliqués al ‘Anatolie. Enfin, ces modèles ont été utilisés pour tester la reproductibilité et les limites de la modélisation analogique. / This thesis presents the results and conclusions from a series of analogue modelling of deformation in compressive and subduction zones (crustal scale and lithospheric scale) : The experiments carried out at the crustal scale show that the symmetry of compressive structures, folds and trust belts with 3 levels of décollement is strongly dependent on the rate of sedimentation. The results were applied to the Subandin Bolivian. The experiments carried out at the lithospheric scale simulate subduction and back-arc extension in a system under compression parallel to the continent - ocean margin (COB). These models show that the density ratio between the continental and oceanic plates is the key factor to explain the back-arc extension: as smaller the difference in density is, less extension occurred. The results were applied to Anatolia. Finally, these models were used to test the reproducibility and limits for analog modeling.

This study utilizes major-, trace- and rare earth elements, as well as radiogenic isotopes (Rb-Sr, Sm-Nd, Pb), in bulk sediment, extracted glass shards, and discrete ash layers, at Ocean Drilling Program Site 1149 (Izu-Bonin Arc), Deep Sea Drilling Project Site 52 (Mariana Arc), and Integrated Ocean Drilling Program Sites C0011 and C0012 (Nankai Trough) in order to characterize and quantify the abundance of dispersed ash, rather than discrete ash layers, in sediments from the Northwest Pacific Ocean. Combination of the geochemical methods with multivariate statistical techniques, such as Q-mode Factor Analysis and multiple linear regressions, allows for differentiation of unique chemistries of the dispersed ash, and the terrigenous components. Therefore, we can document sources that change through time and space. At Site 1149 the bulk sediment is a mixture of two dust and two dispersed ash sources. The two dust sources show contrasting accumulation patterns changing over at a tectonically and climactically active time in Earth's past (~22 Ma) and yield a more complete history of Asian aridity than has been previously considered. We interpret the source of the ashes as basalt from the Izu-Bonin Front Arc (IBFA) and rhyolite from the Honshu Arc (HR). Comparison of the dispersed ash component to the discrete ash layers suggests that eruption frequency, rather than eruption size, drives the dispersed ash record. In contrast, at Site 52 Chinese Loess, IBFA, dispersed boninite from the Izu-Bonin arc, and a dispersed felsic ash of unknown origin are the sources. Interestingly, there are no boninite layers, yet boninite is dispersed within the sediment. Changes in the volcanic and eolian inputs through time indicate strong arc- and climate-related controls. The bulk sediment at Site C0011 is characterized by eolian dust, HR, and a dacite of unknown origin. Site C0012 is comprised of eolian dust, a dacite of unknown origin, as well as dacite and andesite from the Izu-Bonin Arc. Analysis of the total ash record at these two sites provides insight into subduction zone mass balance and water budgets as well as information about the changes in physical properties that result from the alteration of volcanic ash.

La théorie de la tectonique des plaques permet de décrire les mouvements de premier ordre qui opèrent à la surface de la Terre. S'il est acquis que la convection dans le manteau terrestre en est le moteur, les liens entre les phénomènes profonds et les caractéristiques tectoniques de la surface restent largement méconnus. Jusqu'à très récemment, les modèles de convection du manteau terrestre ne produisaient pas de tectonique de surface pouvant être comparée à celle de la Terre. Récemment, des modèles globaux de convection qui reproduisent une tectonique de surface comparable à la Terre au premier ordre ont été mis au point. Ces modèles produisent des courants mantelliques ascendants et descendants de grande échelle et des déformations localisées en surface dans les zones de divergence et les zones de convergence. Ils génèrent une expansion des fonds océaniques de manière auto-cohérente proche de celle reconstruite pour les 200 derniers millions d'années de l'histoire de la Terre et une dérive de continents similaire à celle observée grâce au paléomagnétisme. Cette thèse s'inscrit parmi les premières tentatives d'utilisation de modèles de convection sphériques auto-organisés à des fins de compréhension de la tectonique de surface. La tectonique produite dans ce type de modèles de convection sera caractérisée finement à travers l'étude des limites de plaques, de leur agencement et de leurs vitesses de déplacement. L'objectif est de pouvoir comparer qualitativement et quantitativement les résultats des calculs de convection avec les reconstructions des mouvements de la surface terrestre grâce à la tectonique des plaques et aux observations de terrain. Dans cette optique, les limites tectoniques ont été définies à la main dans un premier temps afin de comprendre la physique qui gouverne l'agencement caractéristique des plaques tectoniques terrestres. En effet, celle-ci est composée de sept grandes plaques et plusieurs petites dont la répartition statistique indique deux processus de mise en place distincts. Nous avons déterminé les processus responsables de la mise en place de l'agencement caractéristique des plaques tectoniques en surface en faisant varier la résistance de la lithosphère. Plus la lithosphère est résistante, plus la longueur totale et la courbure des zones de subduction diminue à la surface des modèles. Cela s'accompagne également d'une diminution du nombre de petites plaques. En étudiant la fragmentation au niveau des jonctions triples, nous avons montré que les petites plaques étaient associées aux géométries courbées des fosses océaniques. En revanche, les grandes plaques sont contrôlées par les grandes longueurs d'onde de la convection mantellique. Ces deux processus impliquent deux temps de réorganisation, c'est-à-dire l'apparition et la disparition d'une plaque plongeante dans le manteau terrestre (environ 100 millions d'années) pour les grandes plaques, alors que l'échelle de temps de réorganisation des petites plaques dépend des mouvements des fosses et est ainsi plus rapide d'un ordre de grandeur. Afin d'effectuer des analyses quantitatives rapides, des méthodes d'analyse automatique de la surface et de l'intérieur des modèles ont été développées. La première technique concerne la détection automatique des plaques tectoniques à la surface des modèles (ADOPT). ADOPT est un outil de détection basé sur une technique de segmentation d'images utilisée pour détecter des bassins versants. Les champs à la surface des modèles sont transformés en reliefs, soit directement, soit après un processus de filtrage. Cette détection permet d'obtenir des polygones de plaques comparable aux analyses réalisées à la main. Une autre technique de détection a été mise au point pour étudier les panaches mantelliques [etc...] / Plate tectonics theory describes first order surface motions at the surface of the Earth. Although it is agreed upon that convection in the mantle drives the plates, the relationships between deep dynamics and surface tectonics are still largely unknown. Until recently, mantle convection models could not produce surface tectonics that could be compared to that of the Earth. New global models are able to form large-scale ascending and descending mantle currents, as well as narrow regions of localized deformation at the surface where convergence and divergence occur. These models selfconsistently generate an expansion of the oceanic floor similar to that of the last 200 million years on Earth, and continental drift similar to what can be reconstructed with palaeomagnetism. This Ph.D. thesis constitutes one of the first attempts to use self-organised, spherical convection models in order to better understand surface tectonics. Here, the tectonics produced by the models is finely charaterized through the study of plate boundaries, their organisation and their velocities. The goal is to be able to compare qualitatively and quantitatively the results of convection computations with surface motions, as reconstructed using the rules of plate tectonics and field observations. Plate boundaries emerging from the models were first traced and analyzed by hand so as to understand the physics that govern the typical organization of the tectonics plates on Earth. It is characterised by seven large plates and several smaller ones, following a statistical distribution that suggests that two distinct physical processes control the plates’ layout. We have determined the processes responsible for this distribution while varying the strength of the lithosphere (the yield stress). In our models, the stronger the lithosphere, the greater the total subduction length and their curvature, and the fewer the small plates. By studying surface fragmentation with triple junctions, we showed that the formation of small plates is associated with oceanic trench curvature. Large plates, however, are controlled by the long wavelengths of the convection cells. These two processes involve two different reorganisation times, controlled either by the accretion and the subduction of the large plates (about 100 Myrs), or by trench motions for the smaller plates. In order to improve the efficiency of our analysis, we have developed automated methods to study the surface and the interior of the models. The first technique is about detecting the tectonic plates automatically at the surface of the models. It is called ADOPT. It is a tool based on image segmentation technique to detect the watersheds. The surface fields of the convection models are converted into a relief field, either directly or using a distance method. This automatic detection allows to obtain plates polygons similar to the hand analysis. Another technique of detection has been developed to study mantle plumes. These analyzes were used to determine the driving forces behind the plates layout, to quantify the timing of reorganizations and to evaluate the implication of the models rheology on the surface distribution. These new analytical tools and the constant evolution of the quality of mantle convection models allow us to improve our understanding of the link between mantle dynamics and surface tectonics, but also to target necessary improvements in the convection models used

Abstract not available

Nine west-northwest-trending faults on the continental margin of Oregon and Washington, between 43° 05'N and 470 20'N latitude, have been mapped using seismic reflection, sidescan sonar, submersibles, and swath bathymetry. Five of these oblique faults are found on both the Juan de Fuca and North American plates, and offset abyssal plain sedimentary units left-laterally from 2.0 to 5.5 km. These five faults extend 8-18 km northwestward from the deformation front. The remaining four faults, found only on the North American plate, are also inferred to have a left-lateral slip sense. The age of the Wecoma fault on the abyssal plain is 600±50 ka, and has an average slip rate of 7-1 0 mm/year. Slip rates of the other four abyssal plain faults are 5.5 ± 2 - 6. 7 ± 3 mm/yr. These faults are active, as indicated by offset of the youngest sedimentary units, surficial fault scarps, offsets of surficial channels, and deep fluid venting. All nine faults have been surveyed on the continental slope using SeaMARC 1A sidescan sonar, and three of them were surveyed with a high-resolution AMS 150 sidescan sonar on the continental shelf off central Oregon. On the continental slope, the faults are expressed as linear, high-angle WNW trending scarps, and WNW trending fault-parallel folds that we interpret as flower structures. Active structures on the shelf include folds trending from NNE to WNW and associated flexural slip thrust faulting; NNW to N trending right-lateral strike-slip faults; and WNW trending left-lateral strike-slip faults. Some of these structures intersect the coast and can be correlated with onshore Quaternary faults and folds, and others are suspected to be deforming the coastal region. These structures may be contributing to the coastal marsh stratigraphic record of co-seismic subsidence events in the Holocene. We postulate that the set of nine WNW trending left-lateral strike-slip faults extend and rotate the forearc clockwise, absorbing most or all of the arc parallel component of plate convergence. The high rate of forearc deformation implies that the Cascadia forearc may lack the rigidity to generate M > 8.2 earthquakes. From a comparison of Cascadia seismogenic zone geometry to data from circum-Pacific great earthquakes of this century, the maximum Cascadia rupture is estimated to be 500 to 600 km in length, with a 150-400 km rupture length in best agreement with historical data. / Graduation date: 1994

Thesis (M.S.)--University of Hawaii at Manoa, 2007. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 66-78). / x, 78 leaves, bound ill. (some col.), map 29 cm

Thesis (doctoral)--Universität Potsdam, 2003. / "August 2004"--P. [2] of cover. Added thesis t.p. Vita. Includes bibliographical references (p. [83]-93). Also available via the World Wide Web.