The acoustoelectric effect in graphene and graphene nanoribbons (GNRs) on lithium niobate surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices was studied experimentally. Monolayer graphene produced by chemical vapour deposition was transferred to the SAW devices. The photoresponse of the acoustoelectric current (Iae) was characterised as a function of SAW frequency and intensity, and illumination wavelength (using 450 nm and 735 nm LEDs) and intensity. Under illumination, the measured Iae increased by more than the measured decrease in conductivity, while retaining a linear dependence on SAW intensity. The latter is consistent with the piezoelectric interaction between the graphene charge carriers and the SAWs being described by a relatively simple classical relaxation model. A larger increase in Iae under an illumination wavelength of 450 nm, compared to 735 nm at the same intensity, is consistent with the generation of a hot carrier distribution. The same classical relaxation model was found to describe Iae generated in arrays of 500 nm-wide GNRs. The measured acoustoelectric current decreases as the nanoribbon width increases, as studied for GNRs with widths in the range 200 – 600 nm. This reflects an increase in charge carrier mobility due to increased doping, arising from damage induced at the nanoribbon edges during fabrication. 2 Lastly, the acoustoelectric photoresponse was studied as a function of graphene nanoribbon width (350 – 600 nm) under an illumination wavelength of 450 nm. Under illumination, the nanoribbon conductivity decreased, with the largest percentage decrease seen in the widest GNRs. Iae also decreased under illumination, in contrast to the acoustoelectric photoresponse of continuous graphene. A possible explanation is that hot carrier effects under illumination lead to a greater decrease in charge carrier mobility than the increase in acoustoelectric attenuation coefficient. This causes the measured decrease in Iae.

Surface Acoustic Waves (SAW) fall under a special category of elastic waves that need a material medium to propagate. The energy of these waves is confined to a limited depth below the surface over which they propagate, and their amplitudes decay with increasing depth. As a consequence of their being a surface phenomenon, they are easily accessible for transduction. Due to this reason, a lot of research has been carried out in the area, which has resulted in two very popular applications of SAW - SAW devices and in Non-Destructive Testing and Evaluation. A major restriction of SAW devices is that the SAW need a piezoelectric medium for generation, propagation and reception. This thesis reports the attempt made to overcome this restriction and utilize the SAW on non-piezoelectric substrates for sensing capabilities. The velocity of the SAW is known to be dependent purely on the material properties, specifically the elastic constants and material density. This dependence is the motivation for the sensor system developed in the present work. Information on the survey of the methods suitable for the generation and reception of SAW on non-piezoelectric substrates has been included in the thesis. This is followed by the theoretical and practical details of the method chosen for the present work - the point source/point receiver method. Advantages of this method include a simple and inexpensive fabrication procedure, easy customizability and the absence of restrictions due to directivity of the SAW generated. The transducers consist of a conically shaped PZT element attached to a backing material. When the piezoelectric material on the transmitter side is electrically excited, they undergo mechanical oscillations. When coupled to the surface of a solid, the oscillations are transferred onto the solid, which then acts as a point source for SAW. At the receiver, placed at a distance from the source on the same side, the received mechanical oscillations are converted into an electrical signal as a consequence of the direct piezoelectric effect. The details of the fabrication and preliminary trials conducted on metallic as well as non-metallic samples are given. Various applications have been envisaged for this relatively simple sensor system. One of them is in the field of pressure sensing. Experiments have been carried out to employ the acoustoelastic property of a flexible diaphragm made of silicone rubber sheet to measure pressure. The diaphragm, when exposed to a pressure on one side, experiences a varying strain field on the surface. The velocity of SAW generated on the stressed surface varies in accordance with the applied stress, and the consequent strain field generated. To verify the acoustoelastic phenomenon in silicone rubber, SAW velocities have been measured in longitudinal and transverse directions with respect to that of the applied tensile strain. Similar measurements are carried out with a pressure variant inducing the strain. The non-invasive nature of this setup lends it to be used for in situ measurement of pressure. The second application is in the field of elastography. Traditional methods of diagnosis to detect the presence of sub-epidermal lesions, some tumors of the breast, liver and prostate, intensity of skin irritation etc have been mainly by palpation. The sensor system developed in this work enables to overcome the restrictive usage and occasional failure to detect minute abnormal symptoms. In vitro trials have been conducted on tissue phantoms made out of poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA-C) samples of varying stiffnesses. The results obtained and a discussion on the same are presented.

La sensibilité des détecteurs d’ondes gravitationnelles de LIGO (Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory) est limité par les fluctuations thermiques dues à la dissipation mécanique dans les couches de Ta2O5 amorphe, qui est une composante des miroirs des interféromètres. Le paramètre d’angle de perte ( ) permet de quantifié l’ampleur de la dissipation et est obtenu en étudiant l’absorption d’énergie mécanique par la couche de matériau. Ce paramètre est généralement caractérisé expérimentalement à des fréquences d’excitations allant de 1-30 KHz près de celle qui nous intéresse pour la détection d’onde gravitationnelle (10-100 Hz) et par des simulations de dynamique moléculaire pour des fréquences très élevées (GHz). Notre recherche vise à caractériser l’angle de perte pour ce matériau pour des fréquences intermédiaires, soit dans la gamme des MHz. Afin d’obtenir une meilleure précision sur les résultats, on utilise les ondes acoustiques de surface qui donne un plus grand poids à la couche mince lors du calcul de l’angle de perte. Deux méthodes sont utilisées pour tenter d’obtenir l’angle de perte des couches ( c) de Ta2O5 de 1 μm déposées sur des substrats, d’une part, composé de SiO2 B270 d’épaisseur 2 mm, et d’autre part, de LiNbO3 d’épaisseur 1 mm. La première se fait à l’aide d’un transmetteur piézoélectrique amovible qui génère les ondes de surface et d’un vibromètre laser qui détecte l’amplitude des vibrations à différentes positions sur l’échantillon. Malgré un précision limitée, il est possible d’obtenir l’angle de perte des couches minces à une fréquence d’excitation de 9.08 MHz. Les résultats les plus fiables de c sont dans l’intervalle 2−7×10−2 avec des incertitudes de 1−3×10−2, ce qui représente de 15 à 50% des valeurs selon le cas. On obtient donc des résultats plus élevés que ce qui est attendu pour cette gamme de fréquence, même avec une précision limitée, ce qui nous porte à penser que certains mécanismes peuvent affecter l’angle de perte à plus hautes fréquences. Pour la deuxième méthode, on place directement sur l’échantillon des transmetteurs interdigitaux qui servent à la fois d’émetteur et de récepteur et une cavité résonante qui permet de contenir les ondes d’une certaine longueur d’onde sur l’échantillon. Les fréquences d’excitations des ondes de surface générés sont de 19.89 MHz et 33.15 MHz. Nos échantillons ne nous permettent pas de calculer c, mais la technique de mesure nous permet d’avoir une précision au moins plus élevée que la première méthode soit 1 × 10−2 pour un échantillon et 4 × 10−3 pour l’autre. On peut facilement améliorer la méthode, notamment en augmentant la réflectivité de la cavité résonante, ce qui permettrait d’obtenir des résultats précis avec des échantillons qui comprennent la couche mince. / Limitations to the sensitivity of LIGO’s (Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory) gravitational wave detectors is due to thermal fluctation induced by mechanical dissipation in the amorphous Ta2O5 thin films composing the interferometer’s mirrors. The loss angle parameter ( ) describes the magnitude of the dissipation that occurs in the material and is obtained by studying the mechanical energy absorption of the thin film. This parameter is usually measured for a range of frequencies going from 1 to 30 KHz, which is near the expected frequencies for gravitational wave detection (10-100 Hz). Molecular dynamics simulations also calculate the loss angle for very high frequencies (GHz). Our research aim to caracterise the loss angle of Ta2O5 thin films in the MHz mid-range frequencies. We use surface acoustic waves for the thin film to have a greater weight in the caculation of the loss angle to help us get a higher precision. Two methods are used to obtain the loss angle of the film ( c) of Ta2O5 (1 μm thick) which, for the first method, is deposited on a 2 mm thick SiO2 B270 substrates, and, for the second method, on a 1mm thick LiNbO3 substrates. The first one uses a movable piezoelectric transducer that generates the surface waves and a laser vibrometer to mesure the amplitude of the vibration along the sample. Though the precision is not very good, we were able to calculate the loss angle of thin films for a surface wave frequency of 9.08 MHz. The best results for c are within the range of 2 − 7 × 10−2 with uncertainties ranging from 1−3×10−2, which represent 15 to 50% of values by case. We get higher loss angles than what was expected for this frequency range, even with a low precision, so we suspect that some loss mechanisms might affect the loss angle at higher frequency. The second method uses a resonator that is place directly on the samples with interdigital transducers that generate the surface waves and acoustical mirrors that form the resonator (acoustical cavity). Wave are excited at two different frequencies, 19.89 MHz and 33.15 MHz, and are contained in the resonator to study their propagation on the sample. Althouth we do not have c results for coated sample, we were able to evaluate the precision of such measuments and we have uncertainties of 1 × 10−2 for a sample and 4 × 10−3 for the other. The samples used with this method could easily be improve, by increasing the reflecitvity of the resonator mirrors, to obtain a higher precision and get better results for sample coated with a thin film.