Conventional water treatment facilities are the norm for producing potable water for U.S. metropolitan areas. Rapidly-growing urban populations, competing demands for water, imperfect water markets, and uncertainty of future water supplies contribute to high interests in alternative sources of potable water for many U.S. municipalities. In situations where multiple supply alternatives exist, properly analyzing which alternative is the most-economically efficient over the course of its useful life requires a sound economic and financial analysis of each alternative using consistent methodology. This thesis discusses such methodology and provides an assessment of the life-cycle costs of conventional water treatment using actual data from an operating surface-water treatment facility located in McAllen, Texas: the McAllen Northwest facility. This facility has a maximum-designed operating capacity of 8.25 million gallons per day (mgd), but due to required shutdown time and other limitations, it is currently operating at 78% of the designed capacity (6.44 mgd). The economic and financial life-cycle costs associated with constructing and operating the McAllen Northwest facility are analyzed using a newly-developed Excel 2 spreadsheet model, CITY H O ECONOMICS . Although specific results are applicable only to the McAllen Northwest facility, the baseline results of $771.67/acre-foot (acft)/ yr {$2.37/1,000 gallons/yr} for this analysis provide insight regarding the life-cycle costs for conventional surface-water treatment. The baseline results are deterministic (i.e., noninclusive of risk/uncertainty about datainput values), but are expanded to include sensitivity analyses with respect to several critical factors including the facility’s useful life, water rights costs, initial construction costs, and annual operations and maintenance, chemical, and energy costs. For example, alternative costs for water rights associated with sourcing water for conventional treatment facilities are considered relative to the assumed baseline cost of $2,300/ac-ft, with results ranging from a low of $653.34/ac-ft/yr (when water rights are $2,000/ac-ft) to a high of $1,061.83/ac-ft/yr (when water rights are $2,600/ac-ft). Furthermore, modifications to key data-input parameters and results are included for a more consistent basis of comparison to enable comparisons across facilities and/or technologies. The modified results, which are considered appropriate to compare to other similarly calculated values, are $667.74/ac-ft/yr {2.05/1,000 gallons/yr}.

Thesis (MSc Food Sc)--Stellenbosch University, 2015. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Surface water used for irrigation is often highly contaminated on a microbial level. Using contaminated surface water for the irrigation of fresh produce can lead to foodborne disease outbreaks and Escherichia coli has been a major cause of foodborne outbreaks associated with fresh produce over the past few years. There are many possible on-farm treatment options available to decrease the high microbial loads present in surface water, one of these is H2O2 and various factors can influence its use. The aim of this study was to determine the efficacy of H2O2 on different E. coli strains. Water from the Plankenburg River was sampled and treated with (250, 300 and 350 mg.L-1) H2O2 and the impact at 0, 30, 60, 90 and 120 min was then evaluated. It was found that the log reductions differed between samples. Log reductions ranged between 1.60 – 2.63 for Aerobic colony counts (ACC), total coliforms and Escherichia coli. The water was not considered safe for irrigation use although it had been treated with H2O2. Reference (ATCC) and environmental E. coli strains were individually treated with H2O2 (250, 300 and 350 mg.L-1) at 0, 30, 60, 90 and 120 min. Log reductions for the ATCC strains ranged between 2.13 – 5.48. This indicated a variation in H2O2 resistance between the different reference strains tested. Log reductions for the environmental E. coli strains ranged between 2.17 – 3.93. Escherichia coli M53 and MJ56 were the most resistant and most sensitive environmental strains to the H2O2 treatment, respectively. Once again it was observed that variations existed between the log reductions achieved for different strains. Overall, it was observed that the ATCC E. coli strains were more sensitive to the H2O2 treatments when compared the environmental strains. This indicates that ATCC strains should not be used for H2O2 treatment optimisation. Certain factors can influence the efficacy of H2O2 such as concentration and organic matter (chemical oxygen demand) present in the water. Different H2O2 concentrations were evaluated (50, 350, 700 and 1 000 mg.L-1) on two E. coli strains (M53 and W1371). Results indicated that 50 mg.L-1 was not effective as less than 1 log reduction was achieved after 120 min. When 350 and 700 mg.L-1 were used similar log reductions were achieved (1.78 – 2.27), which was not expected. Using 1 000 mg.L-1 was considered an effective concentration that resulted in no growth present after 120 min. Escherichia coli strain W1371 carried EPEC virulence factors (potential pathogen). This was included in the study in order to determine how a strain carrying virulence factors would react to H2O2. Escherichia coli W1371 was considered resistant to the H2O2 treatment and log reductions were similar to that achieved for M53. The catalase activity of the E. coli strains was studied to determine if a link existed between catalase activity and H2O2 resistance. Although a trend was observed between heat-stable catalase activity and H2O2 resistance, there were exceptions. It was concluded that high catalase activity does not always coincide with H2O2 resistance and that other mechanisms might also contribute to E. coli survival. Overall, it was observed that there are certain factors that influence the efficacy of H2O2 as a treatment option. It can be concluded that environmental E. coli strains are generally more resistant to the H2O2 treatment compared to ATCC E. coli strains, this needs to be considered when using H2O2 or other chemical disinfectants as a treatment option. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Oppervlakwater wat gebruik word vir besproeiing is dikwels op ‘n mikrobiese vlak hoogs gekontamineer. Die gebruik van oppervlakwater vir die besproeiing van vars produkte kan tot die uitbraak van voedselgedraagde siektes lei. Escherichia coli was een van die hoofoorsake van voedselgedraagde uitbrake geassosieerd met vars produkte gedurende die laaste paar jaar. Daar is verskeie moontlike behandelingsmetodes op plaasvlak beskikbaar om die hoë mikrobiese las in oppervlakwater te verlaag. Een hiervan is waterstofperoksied (H2O2) en verskeie faktore kan die gebruik hiervan beïnvloed. Die doel van hierdie studie was om die doeltreffendheid van H2O2 op verskillende E. coli isolate te bepaal. Watermonsters uit die Plankenburg Rivier is behandel met drie konsentrasies H2O2 (250, 300 en 350 mg.L-1) en die impak is na 0, 30, 60, 90 en 120 minute geëvalueer. Daar is gevind dat die log reduksies tussen monsters verskil het. Log reduksies het gewissel tussen 1.60 en 2.63 vir aerobiese kolonietellings (AKT), totale kolivorme en E. coli. Selfs na H2O2 behandeling, is die water nie as veilig vir besproeiing beskou nie. Verwysingsisolate (ATCC) en omgewingsisolate van E. coli is afsonderlik met H2O2 behandel (250, 300 en 350 mg.L-1) vir 0, 30, 60, 90 en 120 minute. Log reduksies vir die ATCC isolate het gewissel tussen 2.13 en 5.48. Hierdie verskille dui op die variasies wat tussen die getoetste verwysingsisolate voorkom. Log reduksies vir die omgewingsisolate het gewissel tussen 2.17 en 3.93. Escherichia coli M53 en MJ56 was onderskeidelik die mees weerstandbiedende en mees sensitiewe verwysingsisolate wat getoets is. Verskille in log reduksies het daarop gedui dat isolaat variasies voorkom. In geheel is dit gevind dat die ATCC E. coli isolate meer sensitief was vir die H2O2 behandelings vergeleke met die omgewingsisolate. Dit toon dat die ATCC isolate nie gebruik moet word vir H2O2 behandeling optimering nie. Sekere faktore, soos die konsentrasie en organiese materiaal (chemiese suurstof vereiste) in die water, kan die doeltreffendheid van H2O2 behandeling beïnvloed. Verskillende H2O2 konsentrasies is geëvalueer (50, 350, 700 en 1000 mg.L-1) op twee E. coli isolate (M53 en W1371). Resultate dui daarop dat 50 mg.L-1 nie effektief was nie omdat minder as 1 log reduksie behaal is na 120 minute. Toe 350 en 700 mg.L-1 gebruik is, is soortgelyke log reduksies (1.78 – 2.27) teen verwagting in behaal. Die gebruik van 1000 mg.L-1 is as ‘n effektiewe behandeling beskou aangesien daar geen groei na 120 minute teenwoordig was nie. Escherichia coli isolaat W1371 besit EPEC virulensie faktore (potensiële patogeen). Dit is in die studie ingesluit ten einde te bepaal hoe ‘n isolaat met virulensie faktore sou reageer op H2O2. Escherichia coli W1371 is as weerstandbiedend teen die H2O2 behandeling beskou en log reduksies was soortgelyk aan die van M53 . Die katalase aktiwiteit van die E. coli isolate is bestudeer om te bepaal of ʼn skakel bestaan tussen katalase aktiwiteit en H2O2 weerstandbiedendheid. Alhoewel ‘n tendens waargeneem is tussen hitte-stabiele katalase aktiwiteit en H2O2 weerstandbiedendheid, was daar uitsonderings. Die gevolgtrekking was dat hoë katalase aktiwiteit nie altyd saamval met H2O2 weerstandbiedendheid nie en dat ander meganismes ook mag bydra tot E. coli oorlewing. In geheel is dit waargeneem dat daar sekere faktore is wat die doeltreffendheid van H2O2 as ‘n behandelingsmetode beïnvloed. Daar is gevind dat omgewingsisolate van E. coli in die algemeen meer weerstandbiedend is teenoor H2O2 behandeling in vergelyking met ATCC E. coli isolate. Dit moet in ag geneem word wanneer H2O2 of ander chemiese ontsmettingsmiddels oorweeg word as ʼn behandelingsopsie.

This dissertation addresses the role of individual fouling mechanisms on productivity decline and solute mass transport in nanofiltration (NF) of surface waters. Fouling mechanisms as well as solute mass transport mechanisms and capabilities must be understood if NF of surface waters is to be successful. Nanofiltration of surface waters was evaluated at pilot-scale in conjunction with advanced pretreatment processes selected for minimization of nanofilter fouling, which constituted several integrated membrane systems (IMSs). Membrane fouling mechanisms of concern were precipitation, adsorption, particle plugging, and attached biological growth. Fouling was addressed by addition of acid and antiscalent for control of precipitation, addition of monochloramine for control of biological growth, microfiltration (MF) or coagulation-sedimentation-filtration (CSF) for control of particle plugging, and in-line coagulation-microfiltration (C/MF) or CSF for control of organic adsorption. Surface water solutes of concern included organic solutes, pathogens, and taste and odor compounds. Solute mass transport was addressed by evaluation of total organic carbon (TOC), Bacillus subtilis endospores, gesomin (G), 2-methlyisoborneol (MIB), and threshold odor number (TON). This evaluation included modeling to determine the role of diffusion in solute mass transport including assessment of the homogeneous solution diffusion equation. A cellulose acetate (CA) NF was less susceptible to fouling than two polyamide (PA) NFs. NF fouling was minimized by the addition of monochloramine, lower flux, lower recovery, and with the use of a coagulant-based pretreatment (C/MF or CSF). NF surface characterization showed that the low fouling CA film was less rough and less negatively charged than the PA films. Thus the theory that a more negatively charged surface would incur less adsorptive fouling, due to charge repulsion, was not observed for these tests. The rougher surface of the PA films may have increased the number of sites for adsorption and offset the charge repulsion benefits of the negatively charged surface. The addition of monochloramine significantly reduced biodegradation and integrity loss of the CA membrane. PA membranes are inherently not biologically degradable due to their chemical structure. Monochloramination reduced the rate of fouling of the PA membrane but resulted in a gradual increase in water mass transfer coefficient and a decrease in TDS rejection over time, which indicated damage and loss of integrity of the PA membrane. Based on surface characterization by X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometry (FTIR), the PA membrane degradation appeared to be chemically-based and initiated with chlorination of amide nitrogen and/or aromatic rings, which ultimately resulted in disruption of membrane chemical structures. The recommended Integrated Membrane System to control fouling of a surface water nanofiltration system is CSF monochloramine/acid/antiscalent„³monochloramine-tolerant NF. This IMS, at low flux and recovery, operated with no discernable fouling and is comparable to a groundwater nanofiltration plant with cleaning frequencies of once per six months or longer. A significant portion of the organic solutes including total organic carbon (TOC) passing through the membranes was diffusion controlled. Permeate concentration increased with increasing recovery and with decreasing flux for both PA and CA membranes. The influence was diminished for the PA membrane, due to its high rejection capabilities. Total rejection of spores used as pathogen surrogates was not achieved as spores were indigenous and high spore concentrations were used in all challenge studies; however, Integrated Membrane System spore rejection exceeded credited regulatory rejection of similar sized microorganisms by conventional treatment by several logs. Spore rejection varied by NF but only slightly by MF as size-exclusion controlled. There was no difference among spore rejection of IMS with and without in-line coagulation. Consequently, these results indicate membrane configuration (Hollow fiber>Spiral Wound) and membrane film (Composite Thin Film>CA) significantly affected spore rejection. Geosmin and methylisoborneol have molecular weights of 182 and 168 respectively, and are byproducts of algal blooms, which commonly increase taste and odor as measured by the threshold odor number (TON) in drinking water. Although these molecules are neutral and were thought to pass through NFs, challenge testing of IMS unit operations found that significant removal of TON, G and MIB was achieved by membrane processes, which was far superior to conventional processes. A CA NF consistently removed 35 to 50 percent of TON, MIB, and G, but did not achieve compliance with the TON standard of 3 units. A PA NF provided over 99 percent removal of MIB and G. Challenge tests using MIB and G indicated that size-exclusion controlled mass transfer of these compounds in NF membranes.

Driven by excess nutrients in water bodies, eutrophication has long been an issue in water resources management. Harmful algal blooms (HABs) in a highly eutrophic water body lead to hypoxia, creating a “dead zone,” which renders the oxygen levels inadequate for the survival of marine life. This study examined the field-scale filtration performance of two specialty absorbents to improve watershed remediation within a Total Maximum Daily Load program. The goal was to simultaneously remove nutrients and biological pollutants along Canal 23 (C-23) in the St. Lucie River Basin, Florida. The filtration system installed in the C-23 river corridor was equipped with either clay– perlite with sand sorption media (CPS) or zero-valent iron and perlite green environmental media (ZIPGEM). Both media were formulated with varying combinations of sand, clay, perlite, and/or recycled iron based on distinct recipes. Seasonality effects were also evident in nutrient removal efficiencies while the decomposition of dissolved organic nitrogen played a pivotal role in nutrient removal, Overall, ZIPGEM demonstrated a more stable nutrient removal efficiency than CPS in the phase of seasonal changes while biological pollutants can be fully removed over seasons.