The acoustoelectric effect in graphene and graphene nanoribbons (GNRs) on lithium niobate surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices was studied experimentally. Monolayer graphene produced by chemical vapour deposition was transferred to the SAW devices. The photoresponse of the acoustoelectric current (Iae) was characterised as a function of SAW frequency and intensity, and illumination wavelength (using 450 nm and 735 nm LEDs) and intensity. Under illumination, the measured Iae increased by more than the measured decrease in conductivity, while retaining a linear dependence on SAW intensity. The latter is consistent with the piezoelectric interaction between the graphene charge carriers and the SAWs being described by a relatively simple classical relaxation model. A larger increase in Iae under an illumination wavelength of 450 nm, compared to 735 nm at the same intensity, is consistent with the generation of a hot carrier distribution. The same classical relaxation model was found to describe Iae generated in arrays of 500 nm-wide GNRs. The measured acoustoelectric current decreases as the nanoribbon width increases, as studied for GNRs with widths in the range 200 – 600 nm. This reflects an increase in charge carrier mobility due to increased doping, arising from damage induced at the nanoribbon edges during fabrication. 2 Lastly, the acoustoelectric photoresponse was studied as a function of graphene nanoribbon width (350 – 600 nm) under an illumination wavelength of 450 nm. Under illumination, the nanoribbon conductivity decreased, with the largest percentage decrease seen in the widest GNRs. Iae also decreased under illumination, in contrast to the acoustoelectric photoresponse of continuous graphene. A possible explanation is that hot carrier effects under illumination lead to a greater decrease in charge carrier mobility than the increase in acoustoelectric attenuation coefficient. This causes the measured decrease in Iae.

The versatility of surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices stems from the accessibility of the propagation path to modification and detection. This has led to the integration of SAWs in a variety of novel fields, including quantum information processing. The development of technologically competitive devices requires the use of gigahertz frequency SAWs. This thesis develops fabrication processes for high frequency interdigital transducers on gallium arsenide. Optically lithography was used to create linear and stepped transducers, with a minimum feature size of 2 um, that were driven at their fifth harmonic. The highest frequency achieved was 1435 MHz, but the power absorbed was less than 3% and insertion losses were greater than -80 dB. Further improvements in the design and fabrication are required if optically fabricated transducers are to be an alternative to transducers with narrower finger widths. Electron-beam lithography techniques were developed and used to create transducers with finger widths of 500 and 400 nm, with fundamental resonance frequencies of 1387 and 1744 MHz, respectively. The power absorbed was 3 to 6% with insertion losses greater than -45 dB. The performance characteristics can be improved by the removal of residual resist on the surface of the transducer. An indispensable tool for the characterization of one-port transducers is an all optical probe to measure the displacement field of a SAW. This work details the design and construction of a scanning Sagnac interferometer, that is capable of measuring the outward displacement of a surface. The spatial resolution of the interferometer was 2.4 +/- 0.2 um and the displacement sensitivity was determined to be 4 +/- 1 pm. The instrument was used to map the SAW displacement field from a 358 MHz transducer, with results showing the resonant cavity behaviour of the fingers due to Bragg reflections. It also allowed for the direct detection of the SAW amplitude as a function of the driving frequency of the transducer. The results showed good agreement with the related S21 scattering parameter. Lastly, the interferometer was used to image the attenuated propagation of SAWs through a phononic crystal. Results showed good agreement with theoretical simulations. / Thesis (Master, Physics, Engineering Physics and Astronomy) -- Queen's University, 2009-12-08 12:28:35.962

The control of surface acoustic waves (SAWs) using arrays of annular holes was investigated both experimentally and through numerical modelling. Periodic elastic composites, phononic crystals (PnCs), were designed using these annular holes as constituent elements. Local resonances associated with the annular hole structure were found to induce phonon bandgaps of a highly frequency tailorable nature, at frequencies where radiation of acoustic energy into the bulk of the substrate medium is avoided. These bandgaps are numerically demonstrated to exhibit order-of-magnitude improved extinction ratios for finite numbers of PnC elements, relative to the commonly used cylindrical pillar architecture. Devices fabricated on commercially available lithium niobate SAW delay lines verify the predicted behaviour. Through laser knife-edge detector vibrometry, a bandgap attenuation of 24.5 dB at 97 MHz was measured, in excellent agreement with finite element method (FEM) simulations. The first reported experimental evidence of subwavelength confinement of propagating SAWs was realised using the same annular hole PnC concept. Defect holes of perturbed resonant frequencies are included within the PnC to define waveguides and cavities. Confinement within these defects was demonstrated to occur at subwavelength frequencies which was experimentally observed in fabricated cavities using standard SAW transducers, as measured by laser Doppler vibrometry. The success of this result was attributed to the impedance matching of hybridised modes to Rayleigh SAWs in un-patterned substrates at the defect resonance. The work here has the potential to transform the field by providing a method to enhance SAW interactions, which is a route towards the realisation of many lab-on-chip applications. Finally, the use of annular hole arrays as negative refraction metamaterials was investigated. The symmetry was broken of the unit cells by alternating either the locally resonant frequencies or the distance separating the constituent elements. Both methods, called the bi-dispersive and bi-periodic methods, were numerically demonstrated to exhibit negative group velocity bands within the first Brillouin zone. Preliminary experimental results show that the design has the potential to be used in superlensing, where a SAW spot was imaged over a subwavelength flat lens. Future research looks to demonstrate that this result can be attributed to negative refraction.

The unique frequency range and robustness of surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices has been a catalyst for their adoption as integral components in a range of consumer and military electronics. Furthermore, the strain and piezoelectric fields associated with SAWs are finding novel applications in nanostructured devices. In this thesis, the interaction of SAWs with periodic elastic structures, such as photonic or phononic crystals (PnCs), is studied both computationally and experimentally. To predict the behaviour of elastic waves in PnCs, a finite-difference time-domain simulator (PnCSim) was developed using C++. PnCSim was designed to calculate band structures and transmission spectra of elastic waves through two-dimensional PnCs. By developing appropriate boundary conditions, bulk waves, surface acoustic waves, and plate waves can be simulated. Results obtained using PnCSim demonstrate good agreement with theoretical data reported in the literature. To experimentally investigate the behaviour of SAWs in PnCs, fabrication procedures were developed to create interdigitated transducers (IDTs) and PnCs. Using lift-off photolithography, IDTs with finger widths as low as 1.8 um were fabricated on gallium arsenide (GaAs), corresponding to a SAW frequency of 397 MHz. A citric acid and hydrogen peroxide wet-etching solution was used to create shallow air hole PnCs in square and triangular lattice configurations, with lattice constants of 8 um and 12 um, respectively. The relative transmission of SAWs through these PnCs as a function of frequency was determined by comparing the insertion losses before and after etching the PnCs. In addition, using a scanning Sagnac interferometer, displacement maps were measured for SAWs incident on square lattice PnCs by Mathew (Creating and Imaging Surface Acoustic Waves on GaAs, Master’s Thesis). Reasonable agreement was found between simulations and measurements. Additional simulations indicate that SAW waveguiding should be possible with a PnC consiting of air holes in GaAs. The phononic properties of a commonly used photonic plate were also determined. Band structure simulations of the plate displayed no complete elastic band gaps. However, transmission simulations indicated that a pseudo-gap may form for elastic waves polarized in the sagittal plane. / Thesis (Master, Physics, Engineering Physics and Astronomy) -- Queen's University, 2009-12-23 16:24:33.164

The acoustoelectric effect in graphene is studied in a graphene/lithium niobate hybrid system, which was prepared by transferring large area single-layer graphene grown on copper onto lithium niobate SAW devices. The transfer of momentum from the surface acoustic waves (SAWs), generated on the surface of the lithium niobate, to the carriers in graphene results in an attenuation and velocity shift of the wave, and gives rise to an acoustoelectric current. The acoustoelectric current, and the amplitude and velocity of the SAW are measured using a sourcemeter and oscilloscope, respectively. Macroscopic acoustoelectric current flowing over several hundred micrometers is demonstrated in graphene, which is measured to be directly proportional to the SAW intensity and frequency at room temperature. A relatively simple classical relaxation model, which describes the piezoelectric interaction between SAWs and the carriers in a two-dimensional electron system, is used to explain the experimental observations. The investigation of the acoustoelectric current as a function of temperature demonstrates the ability of SAWs of different wavelengths to probe graphene at different length scales. By tuning the conductivity of the graphene through the use of a top gate, voltage-controlled phase (velocity) shifters are demonstrated. The acoustoelectric current measured as a function of gate voltage demonstrates that an equal density of electrons and holes are transported at the charge neutrality point, reflecting the unique properties of graphene.

Les développements récents en physique, et technologiques, ont permis l’élaboration de nouveaux matériaux magnéto-électro-élastique, comme les composites multicouches piézoélectriques / piézomagnétiques. Leur coefficient magnétoélectrique, très grand en comparaison de celui des matériaux constitués d’une seule phase, a suscité récemment un grand nombre de travaux, menant au développement de capteurs, d’actionneurs, de systèmes de conversion d’énergie magnétique-électrique, et dans les mémoires à état solide.Cette thèse porte sur l’étude théorique et expérimentale des ondes acoustiques de surface dans des structures multicouches piézomagnétiques. Une description théorique des matériaux magnéto-élastiques, reposant sur la dérivation d’un modèle de matériau piézomagnétique équivalent, est utilisée conjointement à une technique numérique afin de calculer les courbes de dispersion et les formes des modes des ondes acoustiques se propageant dans des composites piézo-électro-magnétiques déposés sur un substrat. Ce modèle, très général, peut être utilisé pour différents types de structures et pour une intensité et une direction quelconques du champ magnétique externe appliqué. Les structures réalisées en salle blanche sont constituées d’un film mince de 20 couches de TbCo2 (5nm)/FeCo(5nm) déposé sur un substrat de LiNbO3 entre deux peignes interdigités. Une comparaison, entre les variations de la vitesse de phase d’ondes acoustiques de surface induites par l’application d’un champ magnétique externe modélisées et mesurées, est réalisée. Un bon accord quantitatif entre les mesures et les calculs théoriques, et cela pour toutes les orientations du champ magnétique (suivant l’axe facile ou l’axe difficile) et pour différents modes acoustiques, est obtenu. Le mode transverse horizontal présente les plus grandes variations de vitesse, proche de 20% pour un film dont l’épaisseur serait celle de la longueur d’onde acoustique / Recent developments in physics and technology allow the elaboration of new magneto-electro- elastic materials such as multilayered piezoelectric-piezomagnetic composites. Their large magne- toelectric coefficient, compared to the one of single phase materials, recently attracted a large number of studies, and they are now widely used in the development of sensors, actuators, magnetic- electric energy converting devices, and solid state memories.This PhD thesis addresses the experimental and theoretical investigations of guided elastic waves propagation in piezomagnetic multi-layered structure. A theoretical description of magneto- elastic materials, based on the derivation of an equivalent piezomagnetic material of a magnetostric- tive thin film, is used in conjunction with a numerical method to compute propagation constants, i.e. dispersion curves, and mode shapes of elastic waves in layered piezoelectric-piezomagnetic com- posites deposited on a substrate. This model can be used for different structures, and for an applied external magnetic field of any intensity and direction.The realized structures are composed of a 20xTbCo2(5nm)/FeCo(5nm) nanostructured multi- layer deposited between two Aluminum Inter-Digitals Transducers forming a surface acoustic wave delay line, on a LiNbO3 substrate. A comparison between the calculated and measured phase velocity variation under the action of the external magnetic field orientation and magnitude is made. A quantitative agreement between the measured and modeled phase velocity shift for all external magnetic field configurations (hard axis and easy axis) and for different shape modes of elastic waves at their first and third harmonic operation frequencies is obtained. The shear horizontal mode exhibits a maximum phase velocity shift close to 20% for a ratio close to 1 between magneto-elastic film thickness and wavelength

A highly successful architecture for the exchange of single quanta between coupled quantum systems is circuit quantum electrodynamics (QED), in which the electrical interaction between a qubit and a high-quality microwave resonator offers the possibility to reliably control, store, and read out quantum bits of information on a chip. This architecture has also been implemented with mechanical resonators, showing that a vibrational mode can in principle be manipulated via a coupled qubit. The work presented in this thesis consists of realising an acoustic version of circuit QED that we call circuit quantum acoustodynamics (QAD), in which a superconducting qubit is piezoelectrically coupled to an acoustic cavity based on surface acoustic waves (SAWs). Designing and building this novel platform involved the following main accomplishments: a systematic characterisation of SAW resonators at low temperatures; successfully developing a recipe for the fabrication of Josephson junction on quartz and diamond; measuring the coherence time of superconducting 3D transmon qubits on these substrates and demonstrating the dispersive coupling between a SAW cavity and a qubit on a planar geometry. This thesis presents evidence of the coherent interaction between a SAW cavity and a superconducting qubit in several ways. First of all, a frequency shift of the mechanical mode as a function of qubit frequency is observed. We also measure the acoustic Stark shift of the qubit due to the population of the SAW cavity. The extracted coupling is in agreement with theoretical expectations. A time delayed acoustic Stark shift serves to further demonstrate that the Stark shifts that we observe are indeed due to the acoustic field of the SAW mode. The dispersive coupling between these two quantum systems offers the possibility to perform qubit spectroscopy using the SAW resonator as readout component, indicating that these acoustic resonators can, in principle, be adopted as an alternative qubit readout scheme in quantum information processors. We finally present preliminary measurements of the direct coupling between a SAW resonator and a transmon on diamond, suggesting that strong coupling can in principle be obtained.

Cette thèse s’inscrit dans le contexte du développement des laboratoires sur puce (LOC, « Lab On a Chip », permettant de réaliser plusieurs opérations nécessaires à l’analyse d’un échantillon biologique à l'intérieur d'un seul microsystème. Dans ce type de dispositif, de nombreuses étapes sont nécessaires avant d’arriver au résultat d’une analyse donnée (introduction de l'échantillon, concentration, mélange, purification, séparation, etc.). L’équipe microsystèmes du laboratoire Ampère étudie depuis plusieurs années différentes techniques de manipulation sans contact de particules, pour le tri ou de manipulation de particules individuelles dans les laboratoires sur puce, telles que la diélectrophorèse ou la magnétophorèse. Dans cette thèse, nous nous intéressons à la manipulation acoustique de micro particules. Cette technique se révèle notamment avantageuse pour la manipulation d’objets biologiques comme des bactéries, car elle permet de s’affranchir de certaines contraintes de marquage ou de changement de milieu. Notre choix s’est porté sur l’emploi des ondes acoustiques de surface (SAW, « Surface Acoustic Waves »), compatibles avec la filière PDMS très utilisée dans la communauté des LOC. Outre la possibilité de simplifier l’intégration microfluidique de la pince acoustique, la technologie SAW offre une alternative aux dispositifs à pièges acoustiques fixes existant dans la littérature en permettant un contrôle en temps réel des particules piégées. C’est ce que nous avons réalisé expérimentalement : en jouant sur le déphasage entre les signaux d’alimentation électriques des transducteurs électromécaniques, nous pouvons modifier la position des noeuds et des ventres de l’onde acoustique résultante. Ainsi, nous avons pu contrôler en temps réel la position d’une bille en latex de 3 μm ou encore d’un faisceau de bactéries E.coli. Par ailleurs, nous avons réalisé une simulation par éléments finis de la puce acoustofluidique dans son ensemble permettant une meilleure compréhension de tous les phénomènes en jeu et l’optimisation du transfert énergétique entre la source électrique et la particule manipulée. Cette simulation nous indique notamment que l’amplitude de l’onde acoustique stationnaire sur le substrat piézoélectrique varie environ d’un facteur deux en fonction du déphasage imposé entre les deux sources électriques. Cela impacte donc dans la même proportion la force acoustique résultante. Cette variation semble être validée par nos dernières expériences. / In lab-on-a-chip (LOC) technologies, many sample preparation steps are required before achieving a biological analysis on a single chip (sample introduction, concentration, mixing, purification, separation, etc.). The microsystem team of the Ampere Lab has studied for many years different contactless particle manipulation techniques, for sorting or manipulating bioparticles in LOC platforms, such as dielectrophoresis and magnetophoresis. In this thesis, we focus on acoustic manipulation of microparticles. This technique is advantageous for the manipulation of biological objects such as bacteria, because labelling and medium exchange can be avoided. We chose to work with surface acoustic waves (SAW), because this approach is consistent with the use of PDMS, widely used in microfluidics. Besides an easier microfluidic integration of the acoustic tweezers, the SAW technology provides an alternative to the existing devices with fixed acoustic traps, allowing a real time control of the trapped particles. This was experimentally achieved by playing on the phase shift between the two electrical signals driving the IDT, thereby modifying the position of nodes and antinodes of the resulting pressure wave. As a result, we could control in real time the position of a 3 μm latex bead or an E.coli bacteria alignment. We have also developed a finite-element model of the whole acoustofluidic chip allowing a better understanding of the physics and the optimization of the energy transfer between the electrical source and the trapped particle. Among different results, this model informs us that the magnitude of the acoustic radiation force varies by a factor of two with the phase shift between the electrical sources. This result seems to be validated by our last experiments.

Medicine is constantly developing and in order to (early) diagnose common diseases, such as cancer, Parkinson's or Alzheimer's, a liquid biopsy-based approach is of increasing relevance. Samples are complex body fluids, especially blood, whereby a separation of the cells, particles and molecules of interest is often necessary for a subsequent analysis. Conventional methods such as centrifugation, the gold standard of many sample preparations, are reaching their limits in terms of gentle cell separation, purity and automatability. At the same time, the volumes of biological samples required for analysis are decreasing and point-of-care solutions are becoming increasingly important. New technologies for sample preparation are therefore urgently needed to meet this demand. Surface acoustic wave (SAW)-based microfluidic systems have already shown promising results in the handling of biological samples, but there is still a lack in the ability to transfer laboratory set-ups into a real-world environment. In this work, an industrially feasible manufacturing technology for SAW-based microfluidic chips that can be used for separation of blood plasma was developed. For this purpose, polymeric microchannels were integrated directly on the piezoelectric substrate together with the interdigital transducers required for SAW excitation. This was done reproducibly on the wafer-level with established lithographic methods, but a relatively young material system, i.e. dry film resists, allowing an industrial scale-up of the acoustofluidic chips. Furthermore, the chip layout was designed robustly to ensure a stable and continuous separation process and the “lab-around-the-chip” was further developed into an easy-to-use system. Moreover, blood plasma separation at high flow rates of up to 50 μL/min for a 1:5 diluted sample and a throughput of 888,000 cells/s in the SAW-based microfluidic chip was demonstrated. In comparison to microfluidic alternatives, high cell separation purity was achieved with special focus on the use of analytical methods for the detection of low cell concentrations in blood plasma. Direct comparison to centrifugation further indicated a gentler separation method for the cells and more reproducible results. The SAW-based microfluidic system developed in this work offers great potential for future application in liquid biopsy.

The work and results presented in this dissertation concern two complimentary studies that are rooted in surface acoustic waves and transducer study. Surface acoustic wave devices are utilized in a variety of fields that span biomedical applications to radio wave transmitters and receivers. Of interest in this dissertation is the study of surface acoustic wave interaction with polydimethylsiloxane. This material, commonly known as PDMS, is widely used in the microfluidic field applications in order to create channels for fluid flow on the surface of a piezoelectric substrate. The size, and type of PDMS that is created and ultimately etched on the surface of the substrate, plays a significant role in its operation, chiefly in the insertion loss levels experienced. Here, through finite element analysis, via ANSYS® 15 Finite Element Modeling software, the insertion loss levels of varying PDMS sidewall channel dimensions, from two to eight millimeters is investigated. The simulation is modeled after previously published experimental data, and the results demonstrate a clear increase in insertion loss levels with an increase in channel sidewall dimensions. Analysis of the results further show that due to the viscoelastic nature of PDMS, there is a non -linear increase of insertion loss as the sidewall dimensions thicken. There is a calculated variation of 8.31 decibels between the insertion loss created in a microfluidic device with a PDMS channel sidewall thickness of eight millimeters verse a thickness of two millimeters. Finally, examination of the results show that insertion loss levels in a device are optimized when the PDMS sidewall channels are between two and four millimeters. The second portion of this dissertation concerns the calibration of an ultrasonic transducer. This work is inspired by the need to properly quantify the signal generated by an ultrasonic transducer, placed under a static loading condition, that will be used in measuring ultrasonic bone conducted frequency perception of human subjects. Ultrasonic perception, classified as perception beyond the typical hearing limit of approximately 20 kHz, is a subject of great interest in audiology. Among other reasons, ultrasonic signal perception in humans is of interest because the mechanism by which either the brain or the ear interprets these signals is not entirely understood. Previous studies have utilized ultrasonic transducers in order to study this ultrasonic perception; however, the calibration methods taken, were either incomplete or did not properly account for the operation conditions of the transducers. A novel transducer calibration method is detailed in this dissertation that resolves this issue and provides a reliable means by which the signal that is being created can be compared to the perception of human subjects.