The spotlight on rural developed and sustainable livelihoods has increased over the years. Additionally, the importance of natural resources (specifically in poorer contexts and rural areas that have limited infrastructure and services) is well documented. This research focuses on examining the natural resource asset base of rural households in KwaDube, a rural community in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. It argues that natural resources are central to rural households. The research further asserts that, for rural households to have sustainable livelihoods, their natural resources should be available, diverse and accessible. A diverse natural resource asset base provides rural households with a variety of strategies and means for strong livelihood outcomes and coping mechanisms during times of shocks and stress. The research establishes that KwaDube has 28 natural resources used by households of which land is the primary resource. However, households of KwaDube have limited control and access to land and other natural resources in their community. Research further establishes that due to the influence of patriachal traditions which favor men over women in the allocation of resources and opportunities, there is limited equitable access to natural resources. Added to the impact of partriarchy, this study observes that the other main challenge to natural resource accessibility and use is the continuity of Apatheid policies and traditional administrative arrangements which provided access and entitlements to specific groups of people at the expense of others (age, race and gender). The research notes the numerous challenges faced by rural households that highlight their inability to have adequate resources. There is generally very little if any ownership in the form of private property. The available natural resources such as land, forests and water are public property and are degraded. There are inadequate laws protecting use of public property, hence households find themselves exposed to over-consumed natural resources associated with the tragedy of the commons. Diminishing resources mean households continue to struggle to build strong natural resource asset bases. Consequently, households adopt livelihood strategies that are survivalist in nature such as seeking jobs elsewhere, diversifying their income by engaging in off-farm employment and engaging in petty trade using some of the natural resources in KwaDube. / Thesis (M.Soc.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2013.

Urbanisation is an inevitable process that creates opportunities for economic growth and development, however, it can come at the cost of urban poverty and environmental degradation - two of the greatest challenges facing policy-makers. The global failure to develop in a sustainable manner has led to the adoption of green economy in the context of poverty alleviation and sustainable development. Given South Africa’s high rates of urbanisation, the nation’s government, in partnership with civil society and the private sector, is taking steps to green its economy, with the transition ranging from large-scale solar installation projects to small-scale grassroots level projects where the green jobs are created for the poor, predominantly women, by paying them for environmental services. This research investigates how urban poor women in Pietermaritzburg, South Africa, under the management of a local environmental non-governmental organisation (ENGO), Wildlands Conservation Trust (WCT), are using the green economy concept to generate income and contribute to environmental sustainability. Using a case study approach, three areas were selected in which semi-structured questionnaires were administered to women who are involved in a ‘green-preneurship’ initiative, consisting of three project nodes, namely, waste-, tree-, and food-preneurship. The women registered under the project collect and segregate waste for sale to the ENGO (waste-preneurs), while others grow indigenous trees for sale to the ENGO (tree-preneurs), and some grow food crops for subsistence and sale of any excess to community members (food-preneurs). The project is reducing poverty levels and empowering the women both economically and socially. Furthermore, while the primary incentive for participating in the green economy initiative was found to be financial, the project has helped to raise environmental awareness and is a mechanism through which women can contribute to environmental sustainability. Their voluntary participation in the project indicates the importance of urban poor women to green economy. This role stems from understanding the importance of the environment to their livelihood, and in this regard, green economy can be said to be addressing the social and environmental externalities of urbanisation, with women at the forefront. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2013.

In South Africa, about 15,3% of the households were living in 2011 in formal state-subsidised low-income houses (houses for households with income lower than R 3500 - about $ 350 - per month), whereas 12,1% were living in informal dwellings. The sustainable development of low-income housing is therefore one of the main challenges for developing countries addressing the green Agenda as South Africa, especially considering the quality of life of inhabitants and the complex socioeconomic implications. Furthermore, the energy consumption patterns of low income households have emerged as one of the most important factors influencing the national electricity demand, as marked by the National Housing Code of 2009. The complex social and environmental issues related to the living conditions of low-income communities need to be addressed with an integrated approach to the design of the settlements. Rethinking and greening the low-income housing design principles firstly represent an opportunity to strive social inequity and improve the quality of life of households. The rationale of this study is to investigate how a strategic bottom-up approach and multi-scale low-cost green measures, implemented in the design process of South African low-cost housing, can potentially achieve environmental and social sustainability targets with affordable solutions. The dissertation analysed a representative case study of a low-cost housing development in the KwaZulu-Natal Province. The research adopted a bottom-up approach combining participatory methods through a survey and interviews with the local community, and a scenario analysis investigating design alternatives and multiscale green strategies (i.e. alternative building typologies, densification, passive design strategies). The proposed scenario evaluated the potential benefits of the green implementation, through qualitative and quantitative assessments based on sustainability indicators as environmental and energy impacts, social implications, safety and cost effectiveness, supported also by experimental methods using dynamic building energy modelling. The study promoted an integrated and holistic research and design approach to foster the sustainability in low-cost housing development. The outcome of this integrated bottom-up approach defined a framework of good criteria and methods for the design process, which can be intended as a guideline to effectively implement green measures and reach sustainability targets for low-cost settlements. / Thesis (M.Sc.Eng.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2014.

This dissertation explores determinants and perceptions to participation in beekeeping by households’ as well as its contribution to household income. This is in a context that smallholder farmers’ participation is reported to be very low, despite several claimed benefits of beekeeping. Moreover, despite receiving substantial endorsements as a resilient climate-smart rural livelihood, off-farm, forest, non-timber diversification strategy; the uptake of beekeeping by smallholder farmers in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa still remains very low. Against this background, this study used cross-sectional survey data to gauge smallholder farmers’ perceptions and factors that influence their participation in beekeeping using a binary regression model; further, it measured the contribution of beekeeping to rural household income using a linear regression model. Descriptive statistics revealed that majority of the people from the study area have positive perceptions regarding beekeeping. Regression estimates further indicate that beekeeping is mostly conditioned by shared perceptions, institutional and socio-economic factors that are worth targeting to promote the uptake of beekeeping as a livelihood. Public policies that influence the institutional framework (extension, credit and market) in favour of beekeeping are more likely to promote participation in beekeeping activities. Also, more research on the documentation and benefits of beekeeping supported by investments targeting educational campaigns towards promoting positive attitudes and dispelling fears and myths surrounding beekeeping as an enterprise, will also promote the participation of smallholder farmers in beekeeping. Regression estimates for determinants of household income revealed a significant positive contribution of beekeeping to household income, education, gender and age. Promotion of beekeeping may therefore address household income that is worth targeting to address rural poverty. The study therefore concludes that to fully unlock the income potential of beekeeping for smallholder farmers, development agencies need to address several negative perceptions and institutional factors that affect beekeeping participation, while more research is required to quantify the claimed benefits of beekeeping, given their positive potential to promote farmers’ interests in beekeeping.

Rural development efforts to reduce poverty and enhance food security and generally improve livelihoods in developing countries continue to be constrained by high energy cost. For that reason, renewable energy has been identified as a possible panacea to fill this gap. Renewable energy is cheaper, more accessible and environmentally sustainable and promotes inclusivity. Biogas is a renewable energy that is readily available and easy to use by poor rural households. The use of biogas digesters among households in rural areas of developing countries is a well-known technology. The potential for biogas in these areas has been demonstrated and a strong economic case has been made. However, its adoption and use have been lower than expectations possibly as result of non-economic considerations, including social issues about which rural people hold different perceptions. Perceptions of rural households are important because they influence the behaviour to a large extent. Since limited access to affordable energy in rural areas has encouraged government and private organisations to initiate biogas projects to overcome the challenge, it is important to ascertain the factors that affect attitudes towards the technology. The present study sought to explore perceptions of rural households about biogas production towards rural household income in the Raymond Mhlaba Local Municipality. Specifically, this research investigated the state of biogas project being implemented by the University of Fort Hare’s Institute of Technology (FHIT), the perceptions of respondents towards biogas production and determine the contribution of biogas consumption to rural income. The study also aimed to identify the factors affecting the adoption of biogas production in the study area. The study was carried out in Melani village in Raymond Mhlaba Local Municipality in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa and employed survey data obtained from 48 households who were enumerated to identify their perceptions on biogas production, with special emphasis on the role and effect contributed to rural income of Melani village. The study employed a cross-sectional research design and purposive sampling technique was used in data collection. Data were collected and captured in Excel and then analysed using the statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) Version 24 Descriptive statistics was used to examine socio-economic characteristics of households and state of biogas production in the area, Bivariate correlation analysis was used to determine the relationships among the key elements of perceptions of household towards biogas adoption, binary logistic model was used to estimate factors influencing adoption of biogas technology by households. The results show that women were dominant for both adopters and non-adopters of biogas. The majority of households were young with mean age of 40 years while for non-adopters were 65 years old on average. The results showed high levels of literacy amongst household adopters. Majority of the households for both adopters and non-adopters of biogas technology were married and unemployed and household size ranged from one to five persons, with social grants being dominant source of income. The bivariate correlation analysis suggests a positive effect of green pepper production and livestock ownership on biogas technology adoption. Age and level of education were negatively correlated with adoption of biogas. The cross tabulation analysis suggests that water scarcity, lack of knowledge about biogas technology, cattle ownership, lack of maintenance and repairing, flooded biogas digesters during rainy season are negatively associated with the uptake of biogas technology. The empirical results from binary logistic model suggest that land size was the key determinant of adoption behaviour towards biogas technology while age of the household head, source of income and level of education may have a negative influence on adoption of biogas technology. Based on the findings highlighted above, the study recommends strategies to encourage households to adopt biogas technology.

Our beautiful planet, earth, is under present and future threats ranging from over-utilisation of natural resources, limited access to water and food, poverty and climate change, to name a few. These threats are crafted by human kind in his quest for living a better life and can be resolved by man himself. The knowledge and skills to deal with such problems are essentially important and are thus embedded in education. Education is, therefore, viewed as a critical tool for addressing all these environmental threats and for promoting sustainable living among the school communities. The study focussed on evaluation of the role of environmental education in promoting sustainable living in secondary schools. It also aims to foster environmental behaviour in learners and transform secondary schools from unsustainable living to sustainable living. The study was conducted in five circuits in the District of UMkhanyakude. In each circuit two secondary schools were purposefully selected to participate. The study employed both quantitative and qualitative approaches, hence mixed method. A questionnaire was used to collect both quantitative and qualitative approach. The qualitative data was also collected through observations and through open-ended questions of a questionnaire. The participants were subjected to the pre-test, EEP and post-test evaluation. The findings of the investigation revealed that there was a significant statistical differences between the overall pre- and post-test impact on the environmental knowledge, behaviour, attitude and skills. The pre-test results revealed that there was a lack of participants’ knowledge, skills and attitude towards their environment. In the post-test scores, the participants exhibited significant improvement with regard to water savings, energy savings, waste management, purchasing and consumption, garden and school grounds. It is believed that the study will encourage individual learners, educators, non-educators and their parents to transform from present day patterns of unsustainable practices to the ones which are more sustainable. The conclusion drawn from this study, is that when EE is coupled with hand-on activities, becomes effective in promoting sustainable living. / Educational Studies / D. Ed. (Didactics)

Small-scale timber farming provides alternative income for growers selling to forestry, procurement companies and timber suppliers or agents. The research used focus groups and structured questionnaires in the Sokhulu area to determine the contribution of small-scale timber farming to enhance sustainable livelihood. The Sustainable Livelihood Framework measured livelihood levels of different grower types in terms of access to natural, human, financial, social and physical assets. Findings show that timber suppliers had a higher asset composition, than growers selling to companies or growers selling to timber suppliers. Households lacking access to forestry resources sold timber to agents and households wanting to avoid harvesting and transport risks sold timber to suppliers. Timber farming contributes income, employment and business opportunities towards alleviating poverty rather than providing a complete solution. Tree harvesting support households during financial hardship and reduce vulnerability through diversified livelihood strategies. Disadvantages include: trees taking time to mature while immediate income is required, trees exposed to natural hazards, cheating by local harvesting and transport contractors and timber plot sales sometimes do not receive the agreed price. Despite disadvantages, timber farming provide economic benefits and further studies are needed to determine income level on mature trees, by-product sales and whether higher prices for more tonnage will sustain households that wait for tree maturity, thereby determining optimal break-even point for rural timber farmers. / Environmental Sciences / M.A. (Human Ecolgy)

Föreliggande examensarbete behandlar ett alternativt boende i form av camper van. En camper van är en skåpbil som byggs om för att kunna leva eller semestra i. Det finns idag flera olika grupper på sociala medier som diskuterar byggen och reser tillsammans med sina vans, vilket tyder på att intresset för byggandet av desamma är stort. Förslaget för examensarbetet uppkom efter att författaren själv byggde en camper van för att bo i under vintern 2019/2020. De tekniska detaljerna för det specifika bygget finns återgivet som designförslag 1 i rapporten. Ytterligare två designförslag finns att tillgå vilka behandlar en annan typ av inredning samt en skåpbil med mindre volym. De båda senare presenteras i form av layout med förslag kring designval. De tre designförslagen designades i 3D med hjälp av Autodesk Inventor. Arbetet började med den fysiska byggnationen av det första förslaget och avslutades med rapporten, därav fanns grundad information om funktionaliteten på designförslag 1. De två följande förslagen uppnåddes med hjälp av brainstorming samt screening och scoring för att få fram nya idéer. Det första förslaget var tänkt kunna vara ett hållbart boende för en till två personer under ett år i södra Sverige. Designförslag 2 var riktat till två vuxna och ett barn för boende under sommarsemestern. Det sista förslaget riktades mot en person som sporadiskt lever och jobbar i fält. För att samla information om isolering, kondens, konstruktion, värmekälla och elektricitet användes dels sociala medier, främst forum för övergriplig informationshantering. Kunskaper inom hållbarhet, konstruktion, CAD och ellära kunde användas från utbildningen för att bekräfta information samt för att komma med egna förslag. Designförslag 1 som behandlas i rapporten föreslår att hampafiber används till väggar och tak samt XPS-skivor i golvet som isoleringsmaterial. Teoretiskt ger detta en effektförlust på drygt 900 W med användning av 50 mm av vardera material. Pga effektförluster i skarvar valdes en 3 kW dieselvärmare för portabel värme samt ett 2 kW el-element för tillgång till el från det fasta nätet. Med två stycken 100 Ah AGM-batterier klarade camper vanen försörja ett dygnsbehov av el med normal förbrukning av dieselvärmare, laddare, takfläkt, kylskåp och lampor. Laddning av batterierna skedde via bilens generator, fasta elnätet samt 200 W solpaneler. Då examensarbetet främst behandlar teori ska det inte ses som en manual för ett bygge men väl som en inspiration för möjliga lösningar. Avsnittet som behandlar installation av elektricitet ska läsas med extra försiktighet då stora konsekvenser kan fås vid feldimensionering, konsultera alltid en expert. / Following thesis work has a take on alternative living in the form of a camper van. A camper van is a van with the interior rebuilt for the sake of living or vacation. Today there are numerous groups of people gathered on our social platforms where they discuss their builds and travel along with their vans. This indicates a big interest in the common population regarding these tiny moving houses. The proposition for the thesis developed during the build of a camper van for year-round living during the winter of 2019/2020 in Sweden, by the author of the thesis. The technical aspect of that specific build is available as the first design proposition. There are two additional design propositions where one treats the same volume and the other is smaller. The later two propositions are presented only as layouts. All three propositions were designed in 3D using Autodesk Inventor. The work started with the physical build of the first proposition and ended in this report, which made the functionality firmly grounded in the first proposition. The following two propositions were developed with tools such as brainstorming, screening and scoring. That is to be creative and think through each idea. The first proposition was made to support one to two persons in their daily living during one year in the southern parts of Sweden. The second proposition was made for holiday trips with a family of two adults and one child. In the last proposition focus was given on the lonely working person on the field, with an easy, comfortable bed and room for office products. The information regarding isolation, condensation, construction, source of heat and electricity was gathered in forums on social media. Tools from education such as Design For Environment, construction, CAD and electrical principles were used to further and deeper develop an understanding. Proposition 1 that is being treated in the report suggests hemp fiber and XPS as the isolation och choice. The theoretical loss of effect is 902 W using 50 mm of each isolation material. Loss of effect occurs in many other places, hence a 3 kW diesel heater is being used as a portable option and a stationary 2 kW electrical heater when connected to the grid. Two 100 Ah AGM-batteries are being used to power a normal 24 hours usage of heater, fan, chargers, refrigerator and lamps. To charge the batteries the generator of the car, the grid and 200 W solar panels were being used. The thesis work foremost treats theory and is not meant to be used as a manual for a camper van build. It is meant as an inspiration to show possible builds and solutions. Regarding electricity work it is mostly recommended to read the owners manual and always consult experts in the field.

This study was undertaken to explore the barriers to the sustainability of the spaza shops in Atteridgeville (wards, 51, 62, 63, 68, 71 and 72) and to identify the support strategies necessary to assist these shops to grow into sustainable businesses. The study was motivated by the role and contributions of these stores in creating jobs for the majority of the previously disadvantaged people, particularly in the black township areas of South Africa. The study was exploratory, descriptive and qualitative in nature. Semi-structured interviews were conducted to obtain data from 18 spaza shop owners. The findings from the research indicated the following barriers to be responsible for the failure of the spaza shops: lack of financial support, lack of business management skills, expensive transportation, limited trading space, crime, negative competition among spaza shop owners, and lack of cooperatives among spaza shop owners. The study recommends that spaza shop owners should ensure that they have enough savings before embarking on business and that they should also attend training in business management to equip themselves. Spaza shop owners also need to establish collaborative ventures among themselves to enable them to voice their concerns as a collective, rather than as individuals. Government, in partnership with private sector, should improve the effectiveness of its support strategies, for example by assisting spaza shops in forming cooperatives and facilitating training in business skills. It is also recommended that the government, through the Department of Trade and Industry, should continue to find out better ways to aid these stores financially. It is the researcher’s opinion that if these recommendations are followed, they could lead to the success of these stores. / Development Studies / M. A. (Development Studies)

This study was undertaken to explore the barriers to the sustainability of the spaza shops in Atteridgeville (wards, 51, 62, 63, 68, 71 and 72) and to identify the support strategies necessary to assist these shops to grow into sustainable businesses. The study was motivated by the role and contributions of these stores in creating jobs for the majority of the previously disadvantaged people, particularly in the black township areas of South Africa. The study was exploratory, descriptive and qualitative in nature. Semi-structured interviews were conducted to obtain data from 18 spaza shop owners. The findings from the research indicated the following barriers to be responsible for the failure of the spaza shops: lack of financial support, lack of business management skills, expensive transportation, limited trading space, crime, negative competition among spaza shop owners, and lack of cooperatives among spaza shop owners. The study recommends that spaza shop owners should ensure that they have enough savings before embarking on business and that they should also attend training in business management to equip themselves. Spaza shop owners also need to establish collaborative ventures among themselves to enable them to voice their concerns as a collective, rather than as individuals. Government, in partnership with private sector, should improve the effectiveness of its support strategies, for example by assisting spaza shops in forming cooperatives and facilitating training in business skills. It is also recommended that the government, through the Department of Trade and Industry, should continue to find out better ways to aid these stores financially. It is the researcher’s opinion that if these recommendations are followed, they could lead to the success of these stores. / Development Studies / M. A. (Development Studies)