There is enough freshwater on the planet to ensure clean and accessible water for every human being. Despite this fact, water scarcity is a global problem affecting the livelihoods of people everywhere. This paradox can be seen in India. The country has a vast source of water through their many rivers and lakes. Nevertheless, it battles with issues regarding water scarcity and sanitation. Groundwater and rivers are polluted to a high extent and known contaminators are both human waste and industrial effluents. In Mandideep municipality, located in Madhya Pradesh, India, industrial effluents and sewage waste is dumped into the Betwa river which is heavily polluted as a result. These premises lay the foundation for this minor field study whichlooks at women’s wellbeing and capabilities through the lens of ecofeminism and the sustainable livelihood approach. Four villages, in close proximity to the river, are subject of investigation with the aim to understand the female perception of the Betwa river and whetherthe water quality impacts women’s livelihood strategies or not. During the field study, 21 women in these villages have been interviewed. The study concludes that the women’spossibilities are directly connected to environmental wellbeing where the continued undermining of natural resources reduces their capability to obtain sustainable livelihoods. The level of interaction with the river depends on the geographic position of the villages and its proximity to industrial belt of Mandideep.

Disaster impacts have grown significantly in the last half century. Additionally, in 2007 the number of urban residents surpassed that of rural populations generating a struggle for resources, inevitably leading to increased challenges in the achievement of reduction in both urban poverty and disaster vulnerability. Although the literature on disaster recovery suggests that a ‘build back better’ approach is now the accepted norm, there are still many cases worldwide where the reconstruction process actually rebuilds rather than reduces vulnerabilities. The literature on disaster risk reduction provides some basic principles for sustainable hazard mitigation, however, evaluation criteria for effective post-disaster response and reconstruction have yet to be developed. This research will enrich the ongoing debate about what ‘sustainable hazard mitigation’ entails and how it fits into broader development goals in less developed countries (LDCs). A case study examination of a socio-ecological system allows for the identification of the ways in which planning, policy, partnerships, and the like, can be used to reduce vulnerabilities in a post-disaster setting, thus, improving outcomes in future disastrous events. In the absence of a framework for evaluation of disaster risk reduction effectiveness in the literature, an Assessment of Post-disaster Risk Reduction Effectiveness (PDARRE) was created. Thirty three criteria were derived from the literature and ‘good practices’ to address common challenges and necessary actions for successful post-disaster reconstruction which results in reduced vulnerability. The selected case study is a debris flow disaster which decimated the northern coastal state of Vargas, Venezuela in 1999. Torrential rainfall exceeding 900mm fell on the Sierra El Avila Mountains over three days. The results from the PDARRE evaluation found an overwhelmingly poor response to the Vargas disaster, although some positive actions were also noted. Individual community members were not well-informed of the risks they faced living in Vargas and have still not been provided adequate capacity to reduce their vulnerability, nine years after the disaster. The creation of new institutions immediately following the debris flows led to slow decision-making and weak governance as new managers struggled to adapt to their new positions. In addition, poor communication across government institutions, lack of enforcement of zoning policies and an incomplete system of early warning compounded vulnerability and governance concerns. Long-term monitoring of post-disaster recovery and reconstruction has typically been left to local governments that often get distracted by economic pressures and changes. To assist with post-disaster efforts, PDARRE was created to monitor and evaluate effectiveness. The criteria for this assessment were derived from many sources and were organized into categories to assist local governments to see which areas of their disaster response system are weakest, and enable effective adjustments to their activities, consequently improving the entire disaster management system. Though other checklists and tools for post-disaster response activities do exist, I argue that these over-emphasize the immediate response activities and time-frame. The post-disaster context provides an opportunity to harness funding that can be directed at-risk and vulnerability reduction efforts. Consistent with the perspective of prominent international NGOs, this research is based on the prevailing belief that disaster management can be more successful if mainstreamed into broader sustainable development goals and activities. Similar to other disasters, the Vargas debris flow disaster was a convergence of unfortunate and dangerous circumstances. As disasters continue to grow in magnitude and increase in frequency, the importance of strong disaster management plans will be reinforced the world over. With a synthesis of poverty and vulnerability reduction strategies, disaster-affected communities can use the post-disaster context as an opportunity to achieve more sustainable livelihoods, increased equity and improved safety.

Land deals are common in resource-rich countries and have increased during the past years. Contributing factors to the augmentation of land investments in agriculture and forestry are known to be climate change, rising global food prices, rising income levels and changing diets. The international debate on the topic points at the fact that these types of investments create not only great opportunities but also risks and challenges to the host countries, which often have high poverty rates. In order for land deals to be beneficial for all involved actors there is a voiced need for information about the performances and processes of large-scale land deals already at early stages. The objective of this study is to identify and understand the complexities at household level in relation to a new land deal and to explain how these complexities might hinder positive impacts on rural development that this land deal can entail. This thesis draws on a field study of one particular new land deal, Rainbow Oil, in Madagascar where the phenomenon has become substantial during the past few years. The material has been collected through semi-structured interviews and observations as part of an ethnographic approach. Interviews have been made with the investor and authorities at multiple levels but mainly with peasants in the concerned villages. The findings of the study have been analyzed using the sustainable livelihoods framework which permits the analysis to be both holistic and people-centered. Results from the study indicate that hopes for rural development due to the land deal of Rainbow Oil are evident but that certain factors in the peasants’ access to livelihood assets seem to hinder them from engaging in the land use change. Concluding remarks from the results of the study demonstrate that the investor might not have recognized the necessary prerequisites for a successful involvement of the local populations. Deficiencies in the communication between the actors seem to have created uncertainties and skepticism that can further impede both the development of the land use change itself and in turn also the possible development of particularly the concerned villages.

Disaster impacts have grown significantly in the last half century. Additionally, in 2007 the number of urban residents surpassed that of rural populations generating a struggle for resources, inevitably leading to increased challenges in the achievement of reduction in both urban poverty and disaster vulnerability. Although the literature on disaster recovery suggests that a ‘build back better’ approach is now the accepted norm, there are still many cases worldwide where the reconstruction process actually rebuilds rather than reduces vulnerabilities. The literature on disaster risk reduction provides some basic principles for sustainable hazard mitigation, however, evaluation criteria for effective post-disaster response and reconstruction have yet to be developed. This research will enrich the ongoing debate about what ‘sustainable hazard mitigation’ entails and how it fits into broader development goals in less developed countries (LDCs). A case study examination of a socio-ecological system allows for the identification of the ways in which planning, policy, partnerships, and the like, can be used to reduce vulnerabilities in a post-disaster setting, thus, improving outcomes in future disastrous events. In the absence of a framework for evaluation of disaster risk reduction effectiveness in the literature, an Assessment of Post-disaster Risk Reduction Effectiveness (PDARRE) was created. Thirty three criteria were derived from the literature and ‘good practices’ to address common challenges and necessary actions for successful post-disaster reconstruction which results in reduced vulnerability. The selected case study is a debris flow disaster which decimated the northern coastal state of Vargas, Venezuela in 1999. Torrential rainfall exceeding 900mm fell on the Sierra El Avila Mountains over three days. The results from the PDARRE evaluation found an overwhelmingly poor response to the Vargas disaster, although some positive actions were also noted. Individual community members were not well-informed of the risks they faced living in Vargas and have still not been provided adequate capacity to reduce their vulnerability, nine years after the disaster. The creation of new institutions immediately following the debris flows led to slow decision-making and weak governance as new managers struggled to adapt to their new positions. In addition, poor communication across government institutions, lack of enforcement of zoning policies and an incomplete system of early warning compounded vulnerability and governance concerns. Long-term monitoring of post-disaster recovery and reconstruction has typically been left to local governments that often get distracted by economic pressures and changes. To assist with post-disaster efforts, PDARRE was created to monitor and evaluate effectiveness. The criteria for this assessment were derived from many sources and were organized into categories to assist local governments to see which areas of their disaster response system are weakest, and enable effective adjustments to their activities, consequently improving the entire disaster management system. Though other checklists and tools for post-disaster response activities do exist, I argue that these over-emphasize the immediate response activities and time-frame. The post-disaster context provides an opportunity to harness funding that can be directed at-risk and vulnerability reduction efforts. Consistent with the perspective of prominent international NGOs, this research is based on the prevailing belief that disaster management can be more successful if mainstreamed into broader sustainable development goals and activities. Similar to other disasters, the Vargas debris flow disaster was a convergence of unfortunate and dangerous circumstances. As disasters continue to grow in magnitude and increase in frequency, the importance of strong disaster management plans will be reinforced the world over. With a synthesis of poverty and vulnerability reduction strategies, disaster-affected communities can use the post-disaster context as an opportunity to achieve more sustainable livelihoods, increased equity and improved safety.

Community-based tourism (CBT) has become an important facet in the quest for sustainable tourism. CBT is a term that has been subjected to different interpretations in the academic literature. In the field, CBT continues to be supported as an approach to improve the livelihoods of local people in communities participating in tourism. With growing interest in the sustainable livelihoods approach to development, tourism researchers have begun to examine tourism as a livelihood strategy. However, there remain few case studies that have connected the sustainable livelihoods approach and tourism. More specifically, there is limited empirical evidence exploring community-based tourism as a livelihood strategy for rural communities. This research employed an exploratory mixed methods approach to investigate community-based tourism from a livelihoods perspective. The case of the Commonwealth of Dominica was examined to address the following objectives: i) to assess the approach to the development of community-based tourism on the island of Dominica; ii) to analyze residents’ perceptions of the impacts that tourism has on their community from a livelihoods perspective; and iii) to evaluate the degree of success (or failure) of community-based tourism development in Dominica. The research findings revealed that community-based tourism is a valued component of Dominica’s national tourism strategy. Since the early nineties, community involvement has been an implicit policy in the tourism development process. More recently, government-funded initiatives have provided assistance to communities across the island to develop, implement, and market community tourism products. Additionally, this research suggests that the livelihood asset pentagon presented in the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework for Tourism (Shen, Hughey, and Simmons, 2008) is an effective organizational tool for assessing the impact of tourism on communities. Future research should be directed at applying the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework for Tourism in more diverse contexts to ensure its validity and applicability. Furthermore, there is a need to develop a comprehensive Community-based Tourism Framework to assist in the monitoring and evaluation of community-based tourism projects in the field. The main conclusion drawn from this study is that the island of Dominica is on a successful path for developing community-based tourism and it has the potential to yield a number of ‘best practice’ scenarios for the Caribbean region and the globe a like.

Since its introduction into mainstream society two decades ago, ecotourism has become an international phenomenon. Claimed by its proponents to endorse ecologically, socially, and economically sustainable travel to natural areas, ecotourism is in many ways the conceptual fusion of conservation and development. Yet, despite the optimism often associated with the phenomenon, the question of the degree to which it actually contributes to development, however defined, has become a controversial issue. Theorists and practitioners hold a variety of opinions of ecotourism, ranging from cautious optimism (Honey 2008; Ross & Wall 1999) to outright rejection (Carrier & Macleod 2005; Wheeller 2003). Unfortunately, research shows that the poorest of the poor generally bear the burden of ecotourism initiatives without receiving an equitable share of the associated benefits (Stem et al. 2003; Western & Wright 1994). In response, a sustainable livelihoods approach is proposed as a practical means of understanding the complex livelihood strategies employed by indigenous populations. While tourism research has often focused on the economic impacts of ecotourism initiatives, current livelihoods discourse suggests that the poor draw on a wide range of assets and incorporate a variety of livelihood strategies, in their pursuit of economic gain (Ashley 2002; Ashley et al. 2001; Bebbington 1999; Bennett et al. 1999; Zoomers 1999). This discourse is especially timely for pastoral populations living adjacent to protected areas in Kenya. Recent changes in government policy have promoted the subdivision of land for private ownership (Homewood et al. 2009; Leserogol 2005; Lamprey & Reid 2004), an unexpected transformation that has led to the adoption of ecotourism as a sustainable livelihood strategy. Informed by development theory, tourism theory, and property rights theory, the purpose of this research was to examine the effect of different land tenure regimes on the distribution of benefits accrued from various ecotourism initiatives, and how those benefits impact the livelihoods of the pastoral Maasai living on the periphery of the Maasai Mara National Reserve. Culturally-appropriate, participatory research methods were combined with the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework to document an indigenous perspective on livelihood sustainability. By adapting the conceptual framework to include cultural and historical capital, it served as a lens for viewing and identifying the culturally embedded meaning associated with the recent privatisation of Maasai property. These changes include: significant increases in income generated from ecotourism initiatives, an increased desire to cultivate land, an enhanced capacity for participating in the decision-making process, and greater diversification in local livelihood strategies. However, the empirical evidence also demonstrated that changing property regimes have led to the increased sedentarisation of these semi-nomadic people, resulting in modifications to their pastoral culture, reductions in their herd sizes, and the occasional obstruction of wildlife migratory patterns through the construction of permanent fences.

Community-based tourism (CBT) has become an important facet in the quest for sustainable tourism. CBT is a term that has been subjected to different interpretations in the academic literature. In the field, CBT continues to be supported as an approach to improve the livelihoods of local people in communities participating in tourism. With growing interest in the sustainable livelihoods approach to development, tourism researchers have begun to examine tourism as a livelihood strategy. However, there remain few case studies that have connected the sustainable livelihoods approach and tourism. More specifically, there is limited empirical evidence exploring community-based tourism as a livelihood strategy for rural communities. This research employed an exploratory mixed methods approach to investigate community-based tourism from a livelihoods perspective. The case of the Commonwealth of Dominica was examined to address the following objectives: i) to assess the approach to the development of community-based tourism on the island of Dominica; ii) to analyze residents’ perceptions of the impacts that tourism has on their community from a livelihoods perspective; and iii) to evaluate the degree of success (or failure) of community-based tourism development in Dominica. The research findings revealed that community-based tourism is a valued component of Dominica’s national tourism strategy. Since the early nineties, community involvement has been an implicit policy in the tourism development process. More recently, government-funded initiatives have provided assistance to communities across the island to develop, implement, and market community tourism products. Additionally, this research suggests that the livelihood asset pentagon presented in the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework for Tourism (Shen, Hughey, and Simmons, 2008) is an effective organizational tool for assessing the impact of tourism on communities. Future research should be directed at applying the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework for Tourism in more diverse contexts to ensure its validity and applicability. Furthermore, there is a need to develop a comprehensive Community-based Tourism Framework to assist in the monitoring and evaluation of community-based tourism projects in the field. The main conclusion drawn from this study is that the island of Dominica is on a successful path for developing community-based tourism and it has the potential to yield a number of ‘best practice’ scenarios for the Caribbean region and the globe a like.

Since its introduction into mainstream society two decades ago, ecotourism has become an international phenomenon. Claimed by its proponents to endorse ecologically, socially, and economically sustainable travel to natural areas, ecotourism is in many ways the conceptual fusion of conservation and development. Yet, despite the optimism often associated with the phenomenon, the question of the degree to which it actually contributes to development, however defined, has become a controversial issue. Theorists and practitioners hold a variety of opinions of ecotourism, ranging from cautious optimism (Honey 2008; Ross & Wall 1999) to outright rejection (Carrier & Macleod 2005; Wheeller 2003). Unfortunately, research shows that the poorest of the poor generally bear the burden of ecotourism initiatives without receiving an equitable share of the associated benefits (Stem et al. 2003; Western & Wright 1994). In response, a sustainable livelihoods approach is proposed as a practical means of understanding the complex livelihood strategies employed by indigenous populations. While tourism research has often focused on the economic impacts of ecotourism initiatives, current livelihoods discourse suggests that the poor draw on a wide range of assets and incorporate a variety of livelihood strategies, in their pursuit of economic gain (Ashley 2002; Ashley et al. 2001; Bebbington 1999; Bennett et al. 1999; Zoomers 1999). This discourse is especially timely for pastoral populations living adjacent to protected areas in Kenya. Recent changes in government policy have promoted the subdivision of land for private ownership (Homewood et al. 2009; Leserogol 2005; Lamprey & Reid 2004), an unexpected transformation that has led to the adoption of ecotourism as a sustainable livelihood strategy. Informed by development theory, tourism theory, and property rights theory, the purpose of this research was to examine the effect of different land tenure regimes on the distribution of benefits accrued from various ecotourism initiatives, and how those benefits impact the livelihoods of the pastoral Maasai living on the periphery of the Maasai Mara National Reserve. Culturally-appropriate, participatory research methods were combined with the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework to document an indigenous perspective on livelihood sustainability. By adapting the conceptual framework to include cultural and historical capital, it served as a lens for viewing and identifying the culturally embedded meaning associated with the recent privatisation of Maasai property. These changes include: significant increases in income generated from ecotourism initiatives, an increased desire to cultivate land, an enhanced capacity for participating in the decision-making process, and greater diversification in local livelihood strategies. However, the empirical evidence also demonstrated that changing property regimes have led to the increased sedentarisation of these semi-nomadic people, resulting in modifications to their pastoral culture, reductions in their herd sizes, and the occasional obstruction of wildlife migratory patterns through the construction of permanent fences.

Abstract Sustainable community development is a current approach to development that has evolved from previous approaches. In Malaysia, the community-based homestay programme, which is a collective project undertaken by community members, is promoted to rural villages by the Malaysian government as a development strategy. In fact, the homestay programme has the potential to generate additional income for the villagers and provide an avenue for them to participate in tourism development. It also offers cultural exchange between the hosts and the guests, and incorporates the surrounding environment, including farms and the rural landscape, as the main attractions. Nevertheless, research on the Malaysian homestay programme as a development strategy is scarce and predominantly focuses on villages with programmes that are performing well in terms of generating tourist revenue. Although it may be economically viable, economic criterion alone does not guarantee that the programme and the community will be sustainable in the future, justifying the sustainable community development focus of this thesis. Sustainable community development is based on the principle that the community is able to utilise its resources while ensuring future generations have enough resources, reflecting the concepts of equity, a development by the people and for the people, and self-sufficiency. Consequently, three important issues are addressed in this thesis; 1) the distribution of costs and benefits among local people, 2) the nature of local participation, and 3) the self-reliance of the community. In framing the issues, the thesis is underpinned by several theories relating to earlier development theories, sustainable tourism development, sustainable community development, and pro-poor tourism. Unlike previous research which concentrated primarily on the host group with only minor representation from other village members, this thesis seeks to assess all groups in the village; the host, non-host and non-participant. A total of 90 interviews were undertaken in three different categories of homestay villages, in addition to another 10 interviews with representatives from the government and the Malaysian Homestay Association. Semi-structured interviews provided primary data for this study while secondary data was sourced from document analysis. Consequently, the multiple data collection method, including field notes, and various types of data heighten the credibility of this research through triangulation. To provide a framework for the discussion, the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework (DFID, 1999) was applied to analyse the strengths and weaknesses of each homestay village. Overall, the results of this research reveal that the homestay programme is not able to contribute to sustainable community development when it is not accepted by all members of the community. Based on the results, this thesis proposes a framework towards an improvement in the organisation, the management and the community of homestay through an assessment and monitoring system. By implementing the concepts in the proposed Sustainable Livelihoods Framework for Homestay Programme (SLF-HP), it is hoped that such programmes will increase, sustain and expand the benefits to a larger number of community members.

Magister Artium (Development Studies) - MA(DVS) / Tourism is one of the fastest growing global sectors, with current international tourist arrivals exceeding 935 million, and projected arrivals to exceed 1 billion by 2020. Community-based ecotourism has been suggested as a possible avenue for poverty eradication and local economic development in South Africa's remote rural regions, which are characterised by undeveloped infrastructure, poorly functioning schools and few economic opportunities. This is especially true of the Wild Coast region in the Eastern Cape Province, which is characterised by the contrasting elements of abundant natural resources eminently suitable for tourism development, and abject poverty. The central objective of this qualitative study is to evaluate the developmental impacts of the Bulungula Lodge and related initiatives, in order to assess the extent to which ecotourism can be used as a catalyst for local economic development. This includes the conservation practices employed by the enterprise, as well as its contribution towards conservation knowledge amongst community members. In addition, the study undertook to assess the extent to which the Bulungula Lodge and related initiatives has provided employment, and facilitated local participation in decision making and skills development in order to contribute towards sustainable livelihood outcomes. The findings indicate that Bulungula Lodge and related initiatives contribute positively to the local economy through job creation, skills development and local collaboration. However, Bulungula Lodge is faced with a number of factors which constrain the attainment of development goals, such as an inactive local and provincial government, low human and physical capital stocks and an inability to expand without threatening the sustainability of the natural resource base. In conclusion, the study provides numerous recommendations in order to increase the effectiveness of projects and employment within an environment devoid of government intervention. Among these are strategies for improving an understanding of conservation amongst community members, as well as strategies to improve adult education and the empowerment of women in the decision making process.