The general problem was to determine if there was a significant relationship among collegiate swim team training methods, final team standings and individual team member’s placement by event in the 1976 NCAA Division I Swimming Championship Meet.

In swimming, technical performance is a vital indicator of successful performance; however, during phases of high-intensity training, technique can be negatively influenced by fatigue. Advances in video technology have made it possible to increase coaches’ capacity to monitor athletes’ technical performances during training. Yet research examining the biomechanical responses that occur with fatigue using video methods, which are applicable and relevant to coaches during training, is scarce. The limited research to date that has examined the biomechanical responses that occur with fatigue has been restricted to examining fatigue during race-like situations and have used technology which is not available for use by coaches during training. Whilst this research indicates that changes occur during races, it does not apply to coaches for use during training. As fatigue, and its management, is a vital component of the training process, identifying a method of monitoring fatigue during training, which is applicable to coaches, is essential for athlete development. This research is therefore intended to address this by exploring the implications of 2-dimensional (2-D) video analysis in the management of fatigue, during training, by competitive swimming coaches. To explore this, this thesis comprises of four studies. The aim of the first study was to investigate whether 2-D video analysis methods currently used by coaches can measure data validly and reliably. To achieve this, the accuracy, precision, reliability and validity of thirty-five variables (thirty-four technical measures and swim time) were calculated using Dartfish Pro Suite motion analysis software, version 6.0 (Dartfish Ltd, Fribourg, Switzerland) and compared to the smallest worthwhile change. By calculating and comparing these measures, only those technical variables which can be measured with accuracy and precision could be determined objectively. A series of fifteen variables (fourteen technical measures and swim time) were found to be precise, valid and reliable when measured using Dartfish Pro Suite motion analysis software, version 6.0. Using the previously established technical measures, the aim of the second study was to assess if these measures can determine whether technical changes can occur during a high-intensity training session. To achieve this, a group of seventeen elite breaststroke swimmers completed a standard swim set. This involved repeating maximal effort 100m swims on a limited swim-rest time, designed to induce a fatigued state representative of high-intensity training conditions. To determine whether technical changes as a result of fatigue could be detected, the fourteen kinematic technique variables and swim time (fifteen dependent variables in total) were recorded and analysed using 2-D Dartfish Pro Suite motion analysis software, version 6.0 from video recordings of the first and last 100m swim of each swimmer. In addition, 95% confidence intervals were determined to investigate any commonalities or individual differences among swimmers in changes in technical parameters. It was found that during one high-intensity session, technical changes can occur in a group of elite swimmers. The largest changes were shown in leg glide duration (64.6%), swim time (33.2%), stroke rate (35.3%), stroke length (-29.2%), and average velocity (-10.2%) and were shown to have statistically significant (p < 0.05) differences between the first and last 25m of the swim set. These changes were also shown to be common amongst all swimmers and occurred early in the swim set. To evaluate coaches understanding of fatigue and its management during training, the aim of the third study was to assess coaches’ current practices and knowledge regarding fatigue during training. To achieve this, a questionnaire was distributed to over 370 coaches throughout the UK. The questionnaire was separated into multiple sections which assessed: coaches’ current understanding of the topic of fatigue; the methods coaches’ employ to monitor fatigue during a training session; and the processes used to manage fatigue during the training process. It was found that up to 98% of the coaches consider fatigue, its effect and management important in the development of their swimmers. Despite this, there is a lack of consistency in knowledge and methods used by coaches to monitor this. As a result, coaches are continuing to use traditional methods to monitor their athletes which are quick and reliable, specifically stopwatches (100%) and visual observation (98%). Due to the predominant use of visual observation to monitor fatigue, and the identification of technical changes with fatigue, the aim of the fourth study was to assess whether coaches could visually identify changes in the previously established technical markers and whether this could be improved through education of fatigue and video analysis methods. To achieve this, two groups of ten competitive swimming coaches observed a series of videos of three swimmers taken pre- and post- training, and were asked to identify any technical factors which they perceived to change. One group underwent an intervention using Dartfish Pro Suite motion analysis software, version 6.0 and underwater analysis to assess whether this improved their ability to visually observe fatigue in elite swimmers. The remaining group of coaches acted as a control group and received no feedback. Following the one hour intervention, the coaches’ observations slightly improved, however this improvement was not statistically significant (p > 0.05) nor retained after 4 weeks. Although the coaches’ perceptions of fatigue during training varied, they did show a keen interest in further training and education on fatigue and 2-D video analysis. The results from this research indicate that 2-D video analysis is an effective and useful tool, which has practical applications: in monitoring fatigue during a training session; guiding training programmes to maximise training potential; and developing coaches’ identification and management of fatigue during training through education programmes.

Swimming performance is primarily judged on the overall time taken for a swimmer to complete a specified distance performing a stroke that complies with current regulations defined by the Fédération Internationale de Natation (FINA), the International governing body of swimming. There are three contributing factors to this overall time; the start, free swimming and turns. The contribution of each of these factors is event dependent; for example, in a 50m event there are no turns, however, the start can be a significant contributor. To improve overall performance each of these components should be optimised in terms of skill and execution. This thesis details the research undertaken towards improving performance-related feedback in swimming. The research included collaboration with British Swimming, the national governing body for swimming in the U.K., to drive the requirements and direction of research. An evaluation of current methods of swimming analysis identified a capability gap in real-time, quantitative feedback. A number of components were developed to produce an integrated system for comprehensive swim performance analysis in all phases of the swim, i.e. starts, free swimming and turns. These components were developed to satisfy two types of stakeholder requirements. Firstly, the measurement requirements, i.e. what does the end user want to measure? Secondly, the process requirements, i.e. how would these measurements be achieved? The components developed in this research worked towards new technologies to facilitate a wider range of measurement parameters using automated methods as well as the application of technologies to facilitate the automation of current techniques. The development of the system is presented in detail and the application of these technologies is presented in case studies for starts, free swimming and turns. It was found that developed components were able to provide useful data indicating levels of performance in all aspects of swimming, i.e. starts, free swimming and turns. For the starts, an integrated solution of vision, force plate technology and a wireless iii node enabled greater insight into overall performance and quantitative measurements of performance to be captured. Force profiles could easily identify differences in swimmer ability or changes in technique. The analysis of free swimming was predominantly supported by the wireless sensor technology, whereby signal analysis was capable of automatically determining factors such as lap times variations within strokes. The turning phase was also characterised in acceleration space, allowing the phases of the turn to be individually assessed and their contribution to total turn time established. Each of the component technologies were not used in isolation but were supported by other synchronous data capture. In all cases a vision component was used to increase understanding of data outputs and provide a medium that coaches and athletes were comfortable with interpreting. The integrated, component based system has been developed and tested to prove its ability to produce useful, quantitative feedback information for swimmers. The individual components were found to be capable of providing greater insight into swimming performance, that has not been previously possible using the current state of the art techniques. Future work should look towards the fine-tuning of the prototype system into a useable solution for end users. This relies on the refinement of components and the development of an appropriate user interface to enable ease of data collection, analysis, presentation and interpretation.

The global population is ageing, and with it has been a growth of mature aged participation in sport. Following this trend, swimming amongst the adult population in South Africa, whether it is for recreation or competitive purposes, has increased. This research reports on the coaching strategies used by one coach who is training Masters swimmers in Johannesburg. It examines whether or not andragogical principles and teaching methods could be applied to an informal swimming coaching context. Qualitative methods were used for data collection, including an interview with the coach, focus group discussions with the swimmers, pool deck observations and video recordings of the training sessions. Results indicated that adult education principles could be applied to an informal swimming coaching context through flexible and accommodating coaching practices, ensuring effective communication between the swimmer and the coach and utilising the community of practice between the swimmers and coaches to ensure effective adult learning.