Thesis (M.Sc. (Zoology)) --University of Limpopo, 2010 / Refer to document

Thesis (MTech. degree in Agriculture)--Tshwane University of Technology, 2011. / There is a lack of research on the characterization and cryopreservation of Kolbroek boar semen. This study evaluated Kolbroek boar semen characteristics, extenders and cryoprotectants for cryopreservation, and its subsequent assessment of fertility by in vitro fertilization.

Smallholder pig farming is an important livestock activity in Mpumalanga. The aim of the current study was to investigate whether variation in agro-ecological climatic conditions differently impacts on the small-scale pig production systems in Mpumalanga province and to identify factors that influence production positively or negatively in the various agro-ecological zones. The study was conducted in Mpumalanga province of South Africa in three agro-ecological zones namely the highveld, the lowveld and the midveld. The study followed mixed methods approach, using qualitative and quantitative data. In total, 220 randomly selected smallholder pig farmers were interviewed face to face using pre-tested semi-structured questionnaire. Data was entered into Microsoft Excel2007® spreadsheet, filtered and analysed using Stata v9 (Statacorp., Texas, USA) and Microsoft Excel2007® for frequency, herd-related variables; in addition, some hypothesis were tested using appropriate analytical methods (descriptive and correlation analyses). Associations between agricultural training, government assistance (material or financial) and thirteen herd and farmer-related variables were analysed using multivariable logistic regression model. A pairwise correlation was used where necessary and outputs were generated to associate certain variables and preferred methods including markets, market determinants, treatment methods for sick pigs, feed preference, body conditions of the sows and age at weaning. To integrate economic analyses, a partial budgeting combined with other turn on investment (ROI) model has developed in Microsoft Excel 2007® spreadsheet. The outcomes from the field data obtained including details from published materials were utilized to develop and validate the model. Economic feasibility and viability of a 10-sow unit were tested for a three-year farm operation. The results indicated that smallholder pig farming was predominated by males (64%), age group 51 years and above (54%), black Africans (98.6%) and approximately three-quarters of the smallholder farmers were classified as being poor to just below average. The majority (80%) of respondents had no prior pig husbandry training while few had (33%) received assistance from Department of Agriculture. In terms of stock, mixed breeds (89%) from exotic pigs were mostly kept and the majority (87%) of the farmers kept between 1 – 10 ws in their herds. Many farmers (75%) engaged in bio-security risky behaviour of buying auctioned-sourced boars, free-range boars and untested boars from neighbours and relatives. Few (17%) farmers practiced vaccination and only (10%) kept records of the pigs. The majority of the responses on pre-weaning mortality (50%) and post-weaning mortality (90%) were within acceptable range of 1-10% and 1-5% mortality rates respectively. The lead causes of mortality were weak piglets and crushing (46%), diarrhea (27%), poor management knowledge (19%) and malnutrition (16%). Fifty-eight percent farrowed ≤10 piglets/born/sow/litter, 44.2% practiced no weaning method, many fed leftovers alone (41.6%), 47% was using self-medication and 41% of the sows were in poor body conditions. It was also discovered that only 27% sold the porkers in less than 6 months of age and local slaughter/sold live (64.4%) was the most preferred market source. A pair-wise correlation showed links that between the feeding of commercial feeds and pigs in relatively good to very good body conditions. Poor body conditioned pigs were positively correlated with the feeding of swill alone. The economic models for a 10-sow unit proved that pig farming at that scale is unprofitable by feeding commercial feed. However, only through a combination of cooperative systems, benefits of economic of scale, reduction of pre-weaning mortalities, and structured government inputs can improve pig production profitable at this scale of production. In addition, agricultural training and government incentives will facilitate improved productivity in smallholder pig farms within the province / Agriculture, Animal Health and Human Ecology / M. Sc. (Agriculture)

Thesis (MScEng)-- Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Food security is a national priority, according to Section 27 of the South African Constitution. It states: “Every citizen has the right to have access to sufficient food and water, and that the state must by legislation and other measures, within its available resources, avail to progressive realisation of the right to sufficient food.” Nevertheless, while food security is clearly a government priority and regardless of the country being considered as self-sufficient in respect of food production, food insecurity remains a dire South African challenge. This study presents the improvement of smallholder pig farmers to a commercial standard with funding from the government as a potential means to address poverty and food insecurity in South Africa. Commercial standard pig farms as opposed to smallholder pig farms provide increased employment, food production, biosecurity and food safety. This investigative study evaluates the economic feasibility of a smallholder commercial pig farm in the Mamre area. The Empolweni community’s pig farmers serve as the case study and as an example of a typical smallholder pig farming community. Their current operations are studied, the requirements for a conversion to a commercial standard are assessed and the profitability and sustainability of the proposed commercial model is judged. The study’s findings indicate that specific scenarios (high production performance, large pig farm unit sizes, pork price increases or feed costs reductions) a commercial smallholder pig farm can achieve economic feasibility. However, trends indicate that there is low likelihood of the required conditions to achieve economic feasibility will be able to occur. The thesis judges only the potential economic feasibility of the case study, as opposed to the economic feasibility of commercial smallholder pig farmers on a national or regional level. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Voedsel sekuriteit is ‘n nasionale prioriteit en vorm deel van die Artikel 27 Grondwetlike regte in Suid-Afrika. Die Grondwet stel dat elke landsburger die reg op toegang tot voldoende voedsel en water het en dat die staat deur middel van wetgewing en ander maatreëls, binne sy beskikbare middele, progressiewe verwesenliking van die reg op voldoende voedsel moet laat geskied. Nietemin, alhoewel voedsel sekuriteit ongetwyfeld ‘n prioriteit van die regering is en ten spyte daarvan dat Suid-Afrika as selfonderhoudend ten opsigte van voedselproduksie gesien word, heers onvoldoende voedsel sekuriteit steeds. Hierdie studie stel die volgende moontlike oplossing voor: Suid-Afrikaanse kleinskaalse varkboere moet hul bedrywighede opgradeer na 'n kommersiële standaard. Verskeie redes kan gegee word waarom hierdie oplossing 'n gangbare opsie bied om armoede en voedselsekuriteit in Suid-Afrika teë te werk. Kommersiële varkboere, in teenstelling met kleinskaalse varkboere, bied verhoogde vlakke van voedselproduksie, werkskepping, biosekuriteit en veiliger voedingsbronne. Hierdie studie poog om die ekonomiese gangbaarheid van ‘n kleinskaalse kommersiële varkplaas in die Mamre omgewing te bepaal. Die Empolweni gemeenskap se varkboere dien as 'n gevallestudie van ‘n tipiese kleinskaalse varkboerdery gemeenskap. Hul huidige bedrywighede is ondersoek, die benodighede vir ‘n opgradering is bepaal en die winsgewendheid en volhoubaarheid van die kommersiële model is beoordeel. Bevindings toon dat vir spesifieke gevalle (hoë produksievlakke, groot varkplaaseenhede, varkprys verhogings en voerkoste verlagings) ‘n kommersiële kleinskaalse varkplaas ekonomiese gangbaarheid kan behaal. Alhoewel, tendense toon dat daar ‘n lae waarskynlikheid is dat die nodige kondisie om ekonomiese gangbaarheid te behaal sal kan plaasvind. Die tesis oorweeg slegs die ekonomiese gangbaarheid van die gevallestudie. Die ekonomiese gangbaarheid van kleinskaalse varkboere op ‘n nasionale of streeksvlak word dus nie ingesluit nie.

This study was done in the rural areas of uThukela District in KwaZulu-Natal. The objectives were to determine pig production and management practices used by farmers in rearing pigs in rural areas; to establish the role of pigs in social and economic lives of the people; and to characterize and determine constrains and opportunities of pig farming in rural areas. A farming systems approach was used in conjunction with a cross-sectional survey method using a structured questionnaire in face-to-face interviews with farmers for the collection of data. The study involved 4 local rural municipalities with a population of 4205 people who owned 2555 pigs. The sample size was 533 pig farmers/respondents. The data included the demographic characteristics of pig farmers, pig production and management practices, the role of pigs in both the social and economic lives of people and the constraints and opportunities of pig farming. The data were analyzed to determine simple means and frequencies. The results showed that 20% of pigs were reared in intensive systems and 80% in extensive systems in the district. Each village owned an average of 5 pigs. There were more female respondents (60%) than males, and also female respondents owned more (65%) pigs than males. Most of respondents (99%) were Zulu speaking people and only 1% was from other cultural groups. Majority of the respondents (74%) were unemployed, 16% were pensioners and only 10% were employed. Those who were employed kept more pigs than the other groups. Over one third of the respondents had primary (34.5%) and secondary (35.3%) education; and 2.7% had college education, while 27.5% had no formal education at all. Sixty-two percent of the older respondents between the age of 46 and 65 years kept more pigs than younger farmers. The collective incomes of the communities from salaries, pensions, and sales of livestock and crops per annum were substantial. The average land size per household ranged from 0.01 ha to 56 ha. Male respondents owned more land (1.68 ha) than female respondents (0.96 ha). Similarly, employed people owned more land (2.49 ha) than pensioners (1.26 ha) and the unemployed people (1.04 ha). Respondents kept other livestock species such as cattle, sheep, goats and chickens. Ninety percent of households kept chickens in addition to cattle (53%) and goats (49.3%). They also grew crops such as maize, potatoes, vegetables (cabbage, spinach, tomatoes, carrots, beetroots and onions) and fruits (peaches, apples and grapes). They kept pigs for home consumption (63%), source of income (33%), source of manure (3%) and for other reasons (1%). More employed people (68%) sold pigs for extra income, while 91% pensioners and 81% unemployed people used pigs for home consumption. Marketing channels included pension pay points, abattoirs, butcheries and neighbourhoods. Abattoir sales accounted for 10% and the most common venues were Amblecyte (40%) and Cato Ridge (27%). Selling of pigs occurred throughout the year, with the peak in winter (May/July). Majority of farmers (59%) used their own transport to deliver pigs to the selling points or they used contractors (41%). Pigs were sold at the age of 5 to 18 months old. Farmers sold live pigs and pork to the communities. Some farmers sold live pigs only, while others sold pork only or both pork and live pigs. Religion and culture had little influence on pig farming. Most farmers (88%) had no religious or cultural influences, while 7% were influenced by religion and 1% was influenced by culture. The most preferred meat among the communities was chicken meat, followed by beef, pork, mutton and chevon. Half of the respondents had >6 years of experience in pig farming, 34.9% had 2 – 5 years of experience and 14.8% were beginners. The breeds of pigs kept in the district included indigenous breeds, Large White, Landrace, Duroc and crosses of indigenous breeds with Large White and Landrace. Farmers bought breeding stock within their communities or they selected breeding stock from their own herds. Very few farmers have ever received any type of training in pig farming. The training was provided by the KZN Provincial Government, Zakhe Agricultural College and private farms. The training took 2-3 days of workshops, 2-3 weeks of short courses or 3-6 months of hands-on training on private farms. The training improved the performance of sows within the communities. Only 41% of farmers practised controlled stock breeding, which improved the farrowing rate and litter size. About one third (32%) of farmers bred their gilts at 6 – 8 months, while 21.2% bred them at 8-12 months, and 29% bred them after 12 months. The farrowing rate of indigenous sows was one litter per annum compared with the majority of Landrace and Duroc sows that farrowed twice a year. Some farmers (28%) reported that they routinely observed farrowing, while 72% of them said they never knew when the sows farrowed until they saw sows and new litters coming back to their pens after grazing in the veld. The litter sizes varied from ≤ 7 to ≥ 10. Half of the indigenous sows farrowed ≤ 7 piglets per litter, while 41% had 8-10 piglets; compared with 49% Large White and 44% Duroc that farrowed 8-10 and ≥ 10 per litter, respectively. Majority of farmers (66.1%) did not wean their piglets at all, which was associated with low farrowing rate. However, farmers who sold weaners for income weaned their piglets between 3 weeks and 3 months. This was associated with higher farrowing rate of sows. Piglet mortality was mainly due to worm infestation (26%), loss of hair (13%), lice and mange infestation (16.4%) and diarrhoea (5.6%). Despite that only 10% of farmers consulted the local Department of Veterinary Services. Some farmers (44.2%) said that they did not know that they could make use of Veterinary services, and 28% of them said it was a waste of time. Majority of farmers (80%) used home kitchen swill and brewer’s grains to feed their pigs. Only 16% of farmers bought commercial feeds and 2% fed them on maize grains and vegetables. Commercial feeds were bought from Farm Save (48%), Afgri (19%) and Epol (7%). Some farmers (65.4%) weighed feed before feeding, while 35% did not weigh feed at all. Water was provided at feeding time, ad libitum or several times a day. Farmers disposed of carcasses by eating them, feeding to their dogs, or throwing them away. Over half of the farmers (52%) did not take carcasses for post mortem, while 26% did not know that they could send carcasses for post mortem and 20% said they could not afford the cost. The study concluded that pigs have a vital social and economic role in the lives of the rural people of KZN for income generation and household consumption. The main constraints are wide spread poverty and lack of management skills in pig production, nutrition, health,housing and management. Government intervention is necessary to help farmers to improve pig production and management as a means of poverty alleviation and household food security. / Agriculture and  Animal Health / M.Sc. (Agriculture)

This study was done in the rural areas of uThukela District in KwaZulu-Natal. The objectives were to determine pig production and management practices used by farmers in rearing pigs in rural areas; to establish the role of pigs in social and economic lives of the people; and to characterize and determine constrains and opportunities of pig farming in rural areas. A farming systems approach was used in conjunction with a cross-sectional survey method using a structured questionnaire in face-to-face interviews with farmers for the collection of data. The study involved 4 local rural municipalities with a population of 4205 people who owned 2555 pigs. The sample size was 533 pig farmers/respondents. The data included the demographic characteristics of pig farmers, pig production and management practices, the role of pigs in both the social and economic lives of people and the constraints and opportunities of pig farming. The data were analyzed to determine simple means and frequencies. The results showed that 20% of pigs were reared in intensive systems and 80% in extensive systems in the district. Each village owned an average of 5 pigs. There were more female respondents (60%) than males, and also female respondents owned more (65%) pigs than males. Most of respondents (99%) were Zulu speaking people and only 1% was from other cultural groups. Majority of the respondents (74%) were unemployed, 16% were pensioners and only 10% were employed. Those who were employed kept more pigs than the other groups. Over one third of the respondents had primary (34.5%) and secondary (35.3%) education; and 2.7% had college education, while 27.5% had no formal education at all. Sixty-two percent of the older respondents between the age of 46 and 65 years kept more pigs than younger farmers. The collective incomes of the communities from salaries, pensions, and sales of livestock and crops per annum were substantial. The average land size per household ranged from 0.01 ha to 56 ha. Male respondents owned more land (1.68 ha) than female respondents (0.96 ha). Similarly, employed people owned more land (2.49 ha) than pensioners (1.26 ha) and the unemployed people (1.04 ha). Respondents kept other livestock species such as cattle, sheep, goats and chickens. Ninety percent of households kept chickens in addition to cattle (53%) and goats (49.3%). They also grew crops such as maize, potatoes, vegetables (cabbage, spinach, tomatoes, carrots, beetroots and onions) and fruits (peaches, apples and grapes). They kept pigs for home consumption (63%), source of income (33%), source of manure (3%) and for other reasons (1%). More employed people (68%) sold pigs for extra income, while 91% pensioners and 81% unemployed people used pigs for home consumption. Marketing channels included pension pay points, abattoirs, butcheries and neighbourhoods. Abattoir sales accounted for 10% and the most common venues were Amblecyte (40%) and Cato Ridge (27%). Selling of pigs occurred throughout the year, with the peak in winter (May/July). Majority of farmers (59%) used their own transport to deliver pigs to the selling points or they used contractors (41%). Pigs were sold at the age of 5 to 18 months old. Farmers sold live pigs and pork to the communities. Some farmers sold live pigs only, while others sold pork only or both pork and live pigs. Religion and culture had little influence on pig farming. Most farmers (88%) had no religious or cultural influences, while 7% were influenced by religion and 1% was influenced by culture. The most preferred meat among the communities was chicken meat, followed by beef, pork, mutton and chevon. Half of the respondents had >6 years of experience in pig farming, 34.9% had 2 – 5 years of experience and 14.8% were beginners. The breeds of pigs kept in the district included indigenous breeds, Large White, Landrace, Duroc and crosses of indigenous breeds with Large White and Landrace. Farmers bought breeding stock within their communities or they selected breeding stock from their own herds. Very few farmers have ever received any type of training in pig farming. The training was provided by the KZN Provincial Government, Zakhe Agricultural College and private farms. The training took 2-3 days of workshops, 2-3 weeks of short courses or 3-6 months of hands-on training on private farms. The training improved the performance of sows within the communities. Only 41% of farmers practised controlled stock breeding, which improved the farrowing rate and litter size. About one third (32%) of farmers bred their gilts at 6 – 8 months, while 21.2% bred them at 8-12 months, and 29% bred them after 12 months. The farrowing rate of indigenous sows was one litter per annum compared with the majority of Landrace and Duroc sows that farrowed twice a year. Some farmers (28%) reported that they routinely observed farrowing, while 72% of them said they never knew when the sows farrowed until they saw sows and new litters coming back to their pens after grazing in the veld. The litter sizes varied from ≤ 7 to ≥ 10. Half of the indigenous sows farrowed ≤ 7 piglets per litter, while 41% had 8-10 piglets; compared with 49% Large White and 44% Duroc that farrowed 8-10 and ≥ 10 per litter, respectively. Majority of farmers (66.1%) did not wean their piglets at all, which was associated with low farrowing rate. However, farmers who sold weaners for income weaned their piglets between 3 weeks and 3 months. This was associated with higher farrowing rate of sows. Piglet mortality was mainly due to worm infestation (26%), loss of hair (13%), lice and mange infestation (16.4%) and diarrhoea (5.6%). Despite that only 10% of farmers consulted the local Department of Veterinary Services. Some farmers (44.2%) said that they did not know that they could make use of Veterinary services, and 28% of them said it was a waste of time. Majority of farmers (80%) used home kitchen swill and brewer’s grains to feed their pigs. Only 16% of farmers bought commercial feeds and 2% fed them on maize grains and vegetables. Commercial feeds were bought from Farm Save (48%), Afgri (19%) and Epol (7%). Some farmers (65.4%) weighed feed before feeding, while 35% did not weigh feed at all. Water was provided at feeding time, ad libitum or several times a day. Farmers disposed of carcasses by eating them, feeding to their dogs, or throwing them away. Over half of the farmers (52%) did not take carcasses for post mortem, while 26% did not know that they could send carcasses for post mortem and 20% said they could not afford the cost. The study concluded that pigs have a vital social and economic role in the lives of the rural people of KZN for income generation and household consumption. The main constraints are wide spread poverty and lack of management skills in pig production, nutrition, health,housing and management. Government intervention is necessary to help farmers to improve pig production and management as a means of poverty alleviation and household food security. / Agriculture and  Animal Health / M. Sc. (Agriculture)

MRDV / Institute for Rural Development / See the attached abstract below