Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Virginia, 2008. / Includes bibliographical references. Also available online through Digital Dissertations.

Evidence is presented that Lymnaea contains homologues for mammalian Cav3 and NALCN 4-domain ion channels, which retain key amino acid sequence motifs that differentiate these channels from other 4-domain types. Molecular cloning and heterologous expression of the first invertebrate Cav3 channel cDNA from Lymnaea confirms that it indeed is a true homologue to mammalian Cav3 channels, retaining some hallmark biophysical and pharmacological features1. Interestingly, the Lymnaea Cav3 channel gene also exhibits alternative splicing that is conserved with mammalian Cav3.1 and Cav3.2 channels, with homologous exons 8b in the I-II linker (Cav3.1) and 25c in the III-IV linker (Cav3.1 and Cav3.2), that can selectively be included or omitted from the full length channel. We show that the developmental and spatial expression patterns of these splice variants are remarkably conserved, and that these splice variants produce analogous changes in membrane localization and biophysical properties when channels are expressed in HEK-293T cells. The Lymnaea Cav3 channel gene also undergoes alternative splicing in the domain II P-loop, with mutually exclusive exons 12A and 12B that code for a large portion of the P-loop just upstream of the selectivity filter. Such splicing is a novel discovery that is not conserved with vertebrates or any other deuterostome animal, all of which only contain 12A homologues of exon 12. However, protostome animals including Lymnaea stagnalis, Drosophila melanogaster, and C. elegans all have mutually exclusive 12A and 12B exons in their Cav3 channel genes. Evidence is presented that exon 12A is likely the ancestral exon for the domain II P-loop, and that alternate exon 12B evolved later. Furthermore, although the two Lymnaea variants possess the same selectivity filter motifs characteristic for Cav3 channels (i.e. EEDD), they exhibit dramatic differences in calcium vs. sodium selectivity, without significant differences in biophysical properties. This is the first account of alternative splicing used to modulate ion selectivity in a Cav3 channel homologue, and given that calcium is such an important electrogenic signaling molecule, these alterations are expected to have profound physiological implications. Amazingly, Lymnaea NALCN was also found to undergo alternative splicing in the domain II P-loop, but in this case, the entire P-loop is replaced by mutually exclusive exons 15a and 15b such that the selectivity filter is converted from the proposed non-selective sodium-permeable configuration (15b/EKEE; EEKE in mammals, nematodes and insects), to a calcium channel-like pore (15a/EEEE). Thorough phylogenetic analysis reveals that NALCN is extremely unconventional, in that alternative splicing has frequently and independently evolved to alter the selectivity filter in domains II or III, in multiple animal clades. Furthermore, the ancestral NALCN channel most likely contained an EEEE pore. This work brings into question NALCN???s proposed role as a major leak sodium conductance that depolarizes neurons to help set the resting membrane potential, since some species possess only an EEEE variant, and based on homology to other 4-domain ion channels, this should render the channel calcium-selective. Unfortunately, heterologous expression and electrophysiological characterization of the two Lymnaea NALCN isoforms was unsuccessful, corroborating with others the inability to record NALCN ionic currents in heterologous systems.

Invertebrate T-type calcium channels cloned from the great pond snail, Lymnaea Stagnalis (LCav3) possess highly sodium permeant ion channel currents by means of alternative splicing of exon 12. Exon 12 is located on the extracellular turret and the descending helix between segments 5 and segments 6, upstream of the ion selectivity filter in Domain II. Highly-sodium permeant T-type channels are generated without altering the selectivity filter locus, the primary regulatory domain known to govern ion selectivity for calcium and sodium channels. Comparisons of exon 12 sequences between invertebrates and vertebrate T-type channels reveals a conserved pattern of cysteine residues. Calcium-selective mammalian T-type channels possess a single cysteine in exon 12 in comparison to invertebrate T-type channels with either a tri- or penta- cysteine framework. Cysteine residues in exon 12 were substituted with a neutral amino acid, alanine in LCav3 channels harbouring exon 12a and 12b to mimic the turret structure of vertebrate T-type channels. The results generated T-type channels that were even more sodium-permeable than the native T-type channels in snails. Furthermore, permeant divalent ions similar in structure to calcium (eg. barium) were unable to sufficiently block the monovalent ion current of channels lacking cysteines in Domain II, suggesting that the pore is highly sodium permeant, and has weak affinity and block by permeant divalent ions other than calcium. Besides ion selectivity, the cysteine mutated T-type channels were 10 to 100 fold more sensitive to inhibition by nickel and zinc, respectively. The cysteine mutation data highly suggests that the cysteines form an extracellular structure that regulates ion selectivity and shields T-type channels from block by nickel and zinc. In addition, we replaced exon 12 from the sodium permeant snail T-type channel with exon 12 from human Cav3.2 channels. The snail T-type channel with exon 12 from human T-type channels produced a T-type channel that was modestly sodium permeable, but did not confer the high calcium permeability of Cav3.2 channels. These findings suggest that the cysteine containing extracellular domains in exon 12 are not sufficient to generate calcium selective channels similar to human Cav3.2 and likely work in concert with other extracellular domains to regulate the calcium or sodium selectivity of T-type channels.

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No / Carbon monoxide (CO) is firmly established as an important, physiological signalling molecule as well as a potent toxin. Through its ability to bind metal-containing proteins, it is known to interfere with a number of intracellular signalling pathways, and such actions can account for its physiological and pathological effects. In particular, CO can modulate the intracellular production of reactive oxygen species, NO and cGMP levels, as well as regulate MAPK signalling. In this review, we consider ion channels as more recently discovered effectors of CO signalling. CO is now known to regulate a growing number of different ion channel types, and detailed studies of the underlying mechanisms of action are revealing unexpected findings. For example, there are clear areas of contention surrounding its ability to increase the activity of high conductance, Ca2+-sensitive K+ channels. More recent studies have revealed the ability of CO to inhibit T-type Ca2+ channels and have unveiled a novel signalling pathway underlying tonic regulation of this channel. It is clear that the investigation of ion channels as effectors of CO signalling is in its infancy, and much more work is required to fully understand both the physiological and the toxic actions of this gas. Only then can its emerging use as a therapeutic tool be fully and safely exploited.

No / The importance of H2S as a physiological signaling molecule continues to develop, and ion channels are emerging as a major family of target proteins through which H2S exerts many actions. The purpose of the present study was to investigate its effects on T-type Ca2+ channels. Using patch-clamp electrophysiology, we demonstrate that the H2S donor, NaHS (10 μM−1 mM) selectively inhibits Cav3.2 T-type channels heterologously expressed in HEK293 cells, whereas Cav3.1 and Cav3.3 channels were unaffected. The sensitivity of Cav3.2 channels to H2S required the presence of the redox-sensitive extracellular residue H191, which is also required for tonic binding of Zn2+ to this channel. Chelation of Zn2+ with N,N,N′,N′-tetra-2-picolylethylenediamine prevented channel inhibition by H2S and also reversed H2S inhibition when applied after H2S exposure, suggesting that H2S may act via increasing the affinity of the channel for extracellular Zn2+ binding. Inhibition of native T-type channels in 3 cell lines correlated with expression of Cav3.2 and not Cav3.1 channels. Notably, H2S also inhibited native T-type (primarily Cav3.2) channels in sensory dorsal root ganglion neurons. Our data demonstrate a novel target for H2S regulation, the T-type Ca2+ channel Cav3.2, and suggest that such modulation cannot account for the pronociceptive effects of this gasotransmitter. / This work was supported by the British Heart Foundation, the Medical Research Council, and the Hebei Medical University

Alors que la douleur physiologique est essentielle à la survie de l'individu, les douleurs chroniques sont purement délétères pour l'organisme et la qualité de la vie. Malheureusement, les traitements actuels se limitent à des médicaments peu efficaces ou présentant un mauvais rapport bénéfice / risque. Il est donc urgent de mieux comprendre les mécanismes d'établissement et de persistance des douleurs chroniques, comme les douleurs neuropathiques, afin de concevoir des stratégies thérapeutiques efficaces contre ces pathologies. De nombreuses études ont montré que les canaux calciques de type T sont impliqués dans les états douloureux chroniques. Par exemple, le sous-type Cav3.2, est exprimé tout au long du circuit neuronal nociceptif. Dans le système nerveux périphérique, les canaux Cav3.2 ont un rôle pronociceptif et sont désormais validées comme cibles pour la recherche de thérapies innovantes. En revanche, le rôle du canal Cav3.2 au niveau central, et en particulier dans la moelle épinière, un point névralgique de convergence, d'intégration et de transmission des informations nociceptives, reste à explorer.Grâce à un modèle murin Cav3.2GFP-Lox knock-in créé par l'équipe, nous avons pu identifier/localiser précisément les neurones Cav3.2 positifs dans tout le système nerveux et induire une délétion tissulaire spécifique de Cav3.2 par l’action de la Cre recombinase, pour ensuite en évaluer les effets sur la sensibilité à la douleur. Dans la moelle épinière, nous avons constaté que Cav3.2 est fortement exprimé dans les neurones des laminae superficielles, et sont principalement des neurones excitateurs. La suppression de Cav3.2 spinal par une approche virale a démontré comportementalement : i) l’abolition de l’allodynie au froid et mécanique, de l’hyperalgésie mécanique, ainsi que des douleurs spontanées, en condition neuropathiques chez les mâles et les femelles, ii) une altération de la perception au chaud en condition neuropathique avec un effet différentiel dépendant du sexe, et iii) une réduction de l’anxiété associée aux douleurs chroniques, iv) la suppression des effets analgésiques d’un traitement systémique d’un bloqueur pharmacologique de canaux calciques de type T. Mécanistiquement, les enregistrements extracellulaires in vivo des neurones de projection spinaux démontrent une diminution de l'intégration et de la transmission des messages nociceptifs pathologiques des fibres périphériques C et A-delta lorsque le canal Cav3.2 est délété dans les réseaux spinaux. Cette approche de délétion a été développée avant et après l'induction du modèle de douleur neuropathique pour en évaluer les effets préventifs et curatifs.Les résultats démontrent que la délétion du canal spinal Cav3.2 a des effets préventifs et curatifs sur les symptômes des douleurs neuropathiques. Dans une perspective clinique pour le développement d'analgésiques basés sur les inhibiteurs calciques de type T, nous suggérons de cibler Cav3.2 spinal en plus des canaux dans les neurones afférents primaires par des molécules pénétrant le système nerveux central. / Physiological pain is essential for individual survival, but chronic pains are purely deleterious for the organism and the life quality. Unfortunately, current therapies are limited to drugs with a low efficacy or with a bad benefit/risk ratio. It is thus urgently necessary to better understand the establishment and persistence mechanisms of those chronic pains, like neuropathic pain in order to design efficient therapeutic strategies against this pathology. Many studies have shown that T-type calcium channels are involved in chronic pain states, like Cav3.2 subtypes, all along the nociceptive circuit. In the peripheral nervous system, Cav3.2 channels have pronociceptive impact and are now approved as a target for innovative therapies development. In contrast, the role of Cav3.2 channel in the central nervous system, and especially in the spinal cord, a crucial hotspot of nociceptive information convergence, integration and transmission, remains to be explored.Thanks to a Cav3.2-GFP-Lox murine model created by the team, we were able to i/ identify and precisely localize Cav3.2 positive neurons in all the nervous system and ii/ induce tissue specific deletion of Cav3.2 by the Cre recombinase action, to evaluate effects on pain sensitivity. At the spinal level, we found that Cav3.2 is prominently expressed in lamina II neurons comprising mostly excitatory neurons. Knocking-out spinal Cav3.2 by a viral approach has demonstrated behaviorally i) an abolition of cold and mechanical allodynia, mechanical hyperalgesia and spontaneous pain like behaviors under neuropathic conditions in males and females, ii) an alteration of the hot perception, under pathological pain conditions, with a differential effect in a sex dependent manner, and iii) a modification of anxiety associated to chronic pain, iv) a suppression of the analgesia induced by a systemic treatment with a brain penetrant T-type channel blocker. Mechanistically, extracellular in vivo recordings of spinal projection neurons demonstrate a decrease in integration and transmission of pathologic nociceptive messages from peripheral C- and A-delta fibers by Cav3.2 ablation in spinal networks. This approach has been developed before and after induction of the pain model to evaluate the preventive and curative effect of the treatment.Altogether, the results demonstrate that spinal Cav3.2 channel deletion has preventive and curative effects regarding neuropathic pains symptoms. In a clinical perspective for the development of analgesics based on T-type calcium channel blockers, we suggest the utility of targeting spinal Cav3.2 additionally to channels in primary afferent neurons, a notion already well established.

T-type voltage-gated calcium (Ca2+) channels play critical roles in controlling neuronal excitability, firing patterns, and synaptic plasticity, although the mechanisms and extent to which T-type Ca2+ channels are modulated by G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) remains largely unexplored. Investigations into T-type modulation within native neuronal systems have been complicated by the presence of multiple GPCR subtypes and a lack of pharmacological tools to separate currents generated by the three T-type isoforms; Cav3.1, Cav3.2, and Cav3.3. We hypothesize that specific Cav3 subtypes play unique roles in neuronal physiology due to their differential functional coupling to specific GPCRs. Co-expression of T-type channel subtypes and GPCRs in a heterologous system allowed us to identify the specific interactions between muscarinic acetylcholine (mAChR) or metabotropic glutamate (mGluR) GPCRs and individual Cav3 isoforms. Perforated patch recordings demonstrated that activation of Galpha<q/11>-coupled GPCRs had a strong inhibitory effect on Cav3.3 T-type Ca2+ currents but either no effect or a stimulating effect on Cav3.1 and Cav3.2 peak current amplitudes. Further study of the inhibition of Cav3.3 channels by a specific Galpha<q/11>-coupled mAChR (M1) revealed that this reversible inhibition was associated with a concomitant increase in inactivation kinetics. Pharmacological and genetic experiments indicated that the M1 receptor-mediated inhibition of Cav3.3 occurs specifically through a Galpha<q/11> signaling pathway that interacts with two distinct regions of the Cav3.3 channel. As hypothesized, the potentiation of Cav3.1 channels by a Galpha<q/11>-coupled mGluR (mGluR1) initially characterized in the heterologous system was also observed in a native neuronal system: the cerebellar Purkinje cell (PC). In recordings on PCs within acute cerebellar slices, we demonstrated that the potentiation of Cav3.1 currents by mGluR1 activation is strongest near the threshold of T-type currents, enhancing the excitability of PCs. Ultrafast two-photon Ca2+ imaging demonstrated that the functional coupling between mGluR1 and T-type transients occurs within dendritic spines, where synaptic integration and plasticity occurs. A subset of these experiments utilized physiological synaptic activation and specific mGluR1 antagonists in wild-type and Cav3.1 knock-out mice to show that the mGluR1-mediated potentiation of Cav3.1 T-type currents may promote synapse-specific Ca2+ signaling in response to bursts of excitatory inputs.

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