O problema da disposição de resíduos de mineração e a ruptura de barragens de rejeitos preocupa engenheiros e órgãos ambientais nacionais e internacionais. Estes materiais possuem características geotécnicas distintas dos geomateriais encontrados em depósitos naturais, têm granulometria predominantemente siltosa e condutividade hidráulica intermediária. Como o ensaio de palheta constitui-se em uma técnica rotineira na estimativa da resistência ao cisalhamento não-drenada de argilas, procura-se através da presente pesquisa ampliar este conhecimento a solos siltosos. Dentre os fatores que influenciam as medições da resistência não-drenada, a velocidade de rotação pode ser considerada o mais importante, particularmente quando há ocorrência de drenagem parcial durante o cisalhamento. A ocorrência de drenagem parcial durante ensaios de campo em resíduos siltosos gera incertezas na interpretação e na estimativa de parâmetros de projeto. Assim, o objetivo deste trabalho consiste em avaliar a influência da velocidade de rotação da palheta na resistência não-drenada de um material siltoso, de granulometria semelhante aos resíduos de ouro, através de ensaios de laboratório utilizando uma mini-palheta. Para tal, procedeu-se a automatização e adaptação de um equipamento de palheta de laboratório, inicialmente manual, para aplicação de diferentes velocidades de rotação. Os ensaios de mini-palheta foram realizados a velocidades de rotação entre 0,5 e 54 rpm, que correspondem a velocidades adimensionais (V) entre 2 e 276. Os resultados dos ensaios de mini-palheta mostraram, de modo geral, um aumento na resistência com a diminuição da velocidade de rotação da palheta, devido à ocorrência do adensamento a baixas velocidades de rotação. O tempo de ruptura diminuiu e o deslocamento até a ruptura aumentou com o aumento da velocidade de rotação. Observou-se uma grande dispersão nos resultados dos ensaios, provavelmente devido à relação entre o tamanho da palheta e o tamanho dos grãos do solo. Com relação às condições de drenagem impostas ao solo durante o cisalhamento, observou-se que as condições não-drenadas foram satisfeitas para valores de V superiores a 10+2, enquanto as condições drenadas ocorrem para V inferior a 1. Assim, quando 1<V<10+2 há ocorrência de drenagem parcial durante o cisalhamento. A interpretação através da normalização de resultados, correlacionando a velocidade adimensional V ao grau de drenagem U, possibilita a identificação da ocorrência de drenagem parcial, evitando a superestimativa das propriedades geotécnicas dos solos em ensaios de campo. / The problem of tailings disposal and dams failure concerns engineers and national and international environmental agencies. These materials have geotechnical characteristics that differ from geomaterials found in natural deposits, are predominantly silty and have intermediate hydraulic conductivity. As the vane test is a usual technique to estimate the shear strength of clays, the present study extend this knowledge to silty soils. Among the factors that influence the undrained strength measurements, the rotation rate can be considered the most important, particularly when partial drainage during shear occurs. The occurrence of partial drainage during field tests on silty tailings generate uncertainties in the interpretation and estimation of design parameters. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the influence of mini-vane test rotation rate on the undrained strength of a silty soil, with a particle size similar to the gold tailings, through laboratory mini-vane tests. Thus, the automation and customization of a mini-vane test equipment initially manual was developed for the application of different rotation rates. Mini-vane tests were carried out at rotation rates between 0.5 and 54 rpm, corresponding to dimensionless velocities (V) between 2 and 276. The mini-vane tests results showed, in general, an increase in resistance with decreasing the rotation rate due to the occurrence of consolidation of soil at low shearing rates.The time to failure decreased and the displacement to failure increased with increasing rotation rate. There was a wide dispersion of test results, probably due to blade size to soil grain size ratio. Regarding the drainage conditions imposed to the soil during shear, the tests have shown that the undrained conditions are satisfied for V values greater than 10+2, while the drained conditions occurs for V values lower than 1. When 1<V<10+2 partial drainage occurs during shear. The interpretation using normalized results correlating the dimensionless velocity V to the drainage degree U allows the identification of partial drainage occurrence, avoiding the overestimation of soil geotechnical properties in field tests.

O problema da disposição de resíduos de mineração e a ruptura de barragens de rejeitos preocupa engenheiros e órgãos ambientais nacionais e internacionais. Estes materiais possuem características geotécnicas distintas dos geomateriais encontrados em depósitos naturais, têm granulometria predominantemente siltosa e condutividade hidráulica intermediária. Como o ensaio de palheta constitui-se em uma técnica rotineira na estimativa da resistência ao cisalhamento não-drenada de argilas, procura-se através da presente pesquisa ampliar este conhecimento a solos siltosos. Dentre os fatores que influenciam as medições da resistência não-drenada, a velocidade de rotação pode ser considerada o mais importante, particularmente quando há ocorrência de drenagem parcial durante o cisalhamento. A ocorrência de drenagem parcial durante ensaios de campo em resíduos siltosos gera incertezas na interpretação e na estimativa de parâmetros de projeto. Assim, o objetivo deste trabalho consiste em avaliar a influência da velocidade de rotação da palheta na resistência não-drenada de um material siltoso, de granulometria semelhante aos resíduos de ouro, através de ensaios de laboratório utilizando uma mini-palheta. Para tal, procedeu-se a automatização e adaptação de um equipamento de palheta de laboratório, inicialmente manual, para aplicação de diferentes velocidades de rotação. Os ensaios de mini-palheta foram realizados a velocidades de rotação entre 0,5 e 54 rpm, que correspondem a velocidades adimensionais (V) entre 2 e 276. Os resultados dos ensaios de mini-palheta mostraram, de modo geral, um aumento na resistência com a diminuição da velocidade de rotação da palheta, devido à ocorrência do adensamento a baixas velocidades de rotação. O tempo de ruptura diminuiu e o deslocamento até a ruptura aumentou com o aumento da velocidade de rotação. Observou-se uma grande dispersão nos resultados dos ensaios, provavelmente devido à relação entre o tamanho da palheta e o tamanho dos grãos do solo. Com relação às condições de drenagem impostas ao solo durante o cisalhamento, observou-se que as condições não-drenadas foram satisfeitas para valores de V superiores a 10+2, enquanto as condições drenadas ocorrem para V inferior a 1. Assim, quando 1<V<10+2 há ocorrência de drenagem parcial durante o cisalhamento. A interpretação através da normalização de resultados, correlacionando a velocidade adimensional V ao grau de drenagem U, possibilita a identificação da ocorrência de drenagem parcial, evitando a superestimativa das propriedades geotécnicas dos solos em ensaios de campo. / The problem of tailings disposal and dams failure concerns engineers and national and international environmental agencies. These materials have geotechnical characteristics that differ from geomaterials found in natural deposits, are predominantly silty and have intermediate hydraulic conductivity. As the vane test is a usual technique to estimate the shear strength of clays, the present study extend this knowledge to silty soils. Among the factors that influence the undrained strength measurements, the rotation rate can be considered the most important, particularly when partial drainage during shear occurs. The occurrence of partial drainage during field tests on silty tailings generate uncertainties in the interpretation and estimation of design parameters. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the influence of mini-vane test rotation rate on the undrained strength of a silty soil, with a particle size similar to the gold tailings, through laboratory mini-vane tests. Thus, the automation and customization of a mini-vane test equipment initially manual was developed for the application of different rotation rates. Mini-vane tests were carried out at rotation rates between 0.5 and 54 rpm, corresponding to dimensionless velocities (V) between 2 and 276. The mini-vane tests results showed, in general, an increase in resistance with decreasing the rotation rate due to the occurrence of consolidation of soil at low shearing rates.The time to failure decreased and the displacement to failure increased with increasing rotation rate. There was a wide dispersion of test results, probably due to blade size to soil grain size ratio. Regarding the drainage conditions imposed to the soil during shear, the tests have shown that the undrained conditions are satisfied for V values greater than 10+2, while the drained conditions occurs for V values lower than 1. When 1<V<10+2 partial drainage occurs during shear. The interpretation using normalized results correlating the dimensionless velocity V to the drainage degree U allows the identification of partial drainage occurrence, avoiding the overestimation of soil geotechnical properties in field tests.

O problema da disposição de resíduos de mineração e a ruptura de barragens de rejeitos preocupa engenheiros e órgãos ambientais nacionais e internacionais. Estes materiais possuem características geotécnicas distintas dos geomateriais encontrados em depósitos naturais, têm granulometria predominantemente siltosa e condutividade hidráulica intermediária. Como o ensaio de palheta constitui-se em uma técnica rotineira na estimativa da resistência ao cisalhamento não-drenada de argilas, procura-se através da presente pesquisa ampliar este conhecimento a solos siltosos. Dentre os fatores que influenciam as medições da resistência não-drenada, a velocidade de rotação pode ser considerada o mais importante, particularmente quando há ocorrência de drenagem parcial durante o cisalhamento. A ocorrência de drenagem parcial durante ensaios de campo em resíduos siltosos gera incertezas na interpretação e na estimativa de parâmetros de projeto. Assim, o objetivo deste trabalho consiste em avaliar a influência da velocidade de rotação da palheta na resistência não-drenada de um material siltoso, de granulometria semelhante aos resíduos de ouro, através de ensaios de laboratório utilizando uma mini-palheta. Para tal, procedeu-se a automatização e adaptação de um equipamento de palheta de laboratório, inicialmente manual, para aplicação de diferentes velocidades de rotação. Os ensaios de mini-palheta foram realizados a velocidades de rotação entre 0,5 e 54 rpm, que correspondem a velocidades adimensionais (V) entre 2 e 276. Os resultados dos ensaios de mini-palheta mostraram, de modo geral, um aumento na resistência com a diminuição da velocidade de rotação da palheta, devido à ocorrência do adensamento a baixas velocidades de rotação. O tempo de ruptura diminuiu e o deslocamento até a ruptura aumentou com o aumento da velocidade de rotação. Observou-se uma grande dispersão nos resultados dos ensaios, provavelmente devido à relação entre o tamanho da palheta e o tamanho dos grãos do solo. Com relação às condições de drenagem impostas ao solo durante o cisalhamento, observou-se que as condições não-drenadas foram satisfeitas para valores de V superiores a 10+2, enquanto as condições drenadas ocorrem para V inferior a 1. Assim, quando 1<V<10+2 há ocorrência de drenagem parcial durante o cisalhamento. A interpretação através da normalização de resultados, correlacionando a velocidade adimensional V ao grau de drenagem U, possibilita a identificação da ocorrência de drenagem parcial, evitando a superestimativa das propriedades geotécnicas dos solos em ensaios de campo. / The problem of tailings disposal and dams failure concerns engineers and national and international environmental agencies. These materials have geotechnical characteristics that differ from geomaterials found in natural deposits, are predominantly silty and have intermediate hydraulic conductivity. As the vane test is a usual technique to estimate the shear strength of clays, the present study extend this knowledge to silty soils. Among the factors that influence the undrained strength measurements, the rotation rate can be considered the most important, particularly when partial drainage during shear occurs. The occurrence of partial drainage during field tests on silty tailings generate uncertainties in the interpretation and estimation of design parameters. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the influence of mini-vane test rotation rate on the undrained strength of a silty soil, with a particle size similar to the gold tailings, through laboratory mini-vane tests. Thus, the automation and customization of a mini-vane test equipment initially manual was developed for the application of different rotation rates. Mini-vane tests were carried out at rotation rates between 0.5 and 54 rpm, corresponding to dimensionless velocities (V) between 2 and 276. The mini-vane tests results showed, in general, an increase in resistance with decreasing the rotation rate due to the occurrence of consolidation of soil at low shearing rates.The time to failure decreased and the displacement to failure increased with increasing rotation rate. There was a wide dispersion of test results, probably due to blade size to soil grain size ratio. Regarding the drainage conditions imposed to the soil during shear, the tests have shown that the undrained conditions are satisfied for V values greater than 10+2, while the drained conditions occurs for V values lower than 1. When 1<V<10+2 partial drainage occurs during shear. The interpretation using normalized results correlating the dimensionless velocity V to the drainage degree U allows the identification of partial drainage occurrence, avoiding the overestimation of soil geotechnical properties in field tests.

Os rejeitos de mineração provenientes do beneficiamento do minério, quando dispostos de maneira inadequada, podem causar a contaminação do solo e das águas superficiais e subterrâneas. Dependendo do tipo de minério tratado, tais rejeitos podem conter elevadas concentrações de metais potencialmente tóxicos e passar a atuar como fontes persistentes de liberação de tais metais através dos ecossistemas. Assim sendo, a caracterização desses rejeitos é extremamente importante. Neste contexto, foram realizadas caracterizações geológicas e geotécnicas nos rejeitos de mineração provenientes da região do Vale do Ribeira (município de Adrianópolis-PR), visando avaliar o grau de mobilidade e toxicidade dos metais contidos na porção superficial deste depósito. Para tanto, foram realizadas caracterizações mineralógicas (DRX e MEV/EDS), granulométricas, determinação dos parâmetros físico-químicos (pH, Eh e CE), além de ensaios que verificaram a mobilidade, especiação química e toxicidade das amostras: ensaios de solubilização, lixiviação, ensaio de variação de pH, extração sequencial e ecotoxicidade aquática envolvendo o organismo teste Daphnia similis. Além dos rejeitos foram realizadas análises mineralógicas e determinação dos parâmetros físico-químicos em amostras de estéril. A partir destas caracterizações, foi possível verificar que a composição mineralógica predominantemente no rejeito e no estéril é o carbonato, reflexo da litologia local. Tal composição refletiu também nos elevados valores de pH, que variaram de 7,6 a 8,0. Esses rejeitos apresentaram granulometria fina (predominância de areia muito fina, fina e silte), além de altas concentrações de metais, principalmente Pb (concentração média de 5.236,67 mg.kg-1 ) e Zn (7.726,53 mg.kg-1 ). Dos metais analisados, o Pb excedeu o valor preconizado na norma ABNT NBR 10.004:2004, tanto nos extratos lixiviados como nos solubilizados, para todas as amostras analisadas, o que permitiu classificar tais resíduos como Classe I - Perigoso. No ensaio de variação de pH, de forma geral, o Zn apresentou maior liberação na condição inicial mais ácida (pH 3), com média de liberação de 11,54 mg.L-1 após sessenta minutos de ensaio; embora nas outras condições também tenha ocorrido liberação considerável. A partir da extração sequencial, foi possível verificar que todos os metais (com exceção do Cu) estavam associados à fase de óxidos/hidróxidos, porém as fases consideradas de maior mobilidade (trocável e carbonática) estavam presentes em concentrações significativas para todos os metais analisados. As cinco amostras analisadas mostraram-se heterogêneas sendo que a RP5 e a RP7, apresentaram maior mobilidade dos metais Pb e Zn, além de terem apresentado maior toxicidade nos ensaios de ecotoxicidade. Para o ensaio de ecotoxicidade aquática, tais amostras apresentaram imobilidade dos neonatos até mesmo nas diluições menos concentradas (diluições contendo somente 6,2 e 3,1% de extrato solubilizado). Assim, concluiu-se que o rejeito pode ser considerado perigoso do ponto de vista ambiental, já que as altas concentrações de metais potencialmente tóxicos presentes estão passíveis de liberação e migração no ecossistema, podendo interagir com a biota aquática e terrestre. / Tailings from the ore processing when improperly disposed, can cause contamination of soil, surface water and groundwater. Depending on the treated ore, the mining waste may contain high concentrations of toxic metals and start acting as persistent metals sources to surrounding ecosystems. Therefore, the characterization of this material is extremely important. In this context, geological and geotechnical characterization were performed on tailings from Ribeira Valley (Adrianópolis-PR), in order to evaluate the mobility and toxicity of metals present in the superficial portion of the deposit. For the current paper the following tests were performed: mineralogical characterization (XRD and SEM/EDS), particle size distribution, determination of physical and chemical properties (pH, Eh and EC), solubilization and leaching tests, pH variation, sequential extraction and aquatic ecotoxicity were carried out. Besides the tailings analyzes, mineralogical characterization and pH measurements were also performed in samples from Perau (waste rock). The results showed mineralogical compositions predominantly carbonate in both tailing and Perau samples, as a reflection of the local lithology. This composition also reflected in the higher pH values, which ranged from 7.6 to 8.0. The tailing had fine particle size (predominance of silt, very fine and fine sand), and high concentrations of metals, especially Pb (average concentration of 5236.67 mg.kg-1) and Zn (7726.53 mg.kg-1). The metal Pb was above of the recommended value in ABNT NBR 10.004:2004 in leaching tests, solubilization tests and for all samples. This fact allowed the classification of the waste as Class I-Dangerous. In testing of pH variation, the Zn showed higher release in initial acidic condition (pH 3), releasing average 11.54 mg.L-1 after sixty minutes of test; although in others pH conditions have also been considerable release. In sequential extraction, the results found that all metals (except Cu) were associated with phase oxides/hydroxides, but the phases considered more mobile (exchangeable and carbonate) were also present in significant concentrations for all metals. The five samples were considered heterogeneous and two of them (RP5 and RP7) had greater mobility of Pb and Zn, besides a higher toxicity in ecotoxicity tests. In aquatic ecotoxicity test, the samples showed immobility of neonates organisms even in less concentrated dilutions (dilutions containing only 6.2 and 3.1% solubilized extract). In conclusion, the waste may be considered problematic for environment, because the high concentrations of toxic metals present in tailing can be released from it and migrate to the ecosystems, causing exposure to terrestrial and aquatic organisms.

La presente tesis se estudia el fenómeno de licuefacción del material de relave en la presa zona norte en la mina cobriza, considerando que está sometida a una carga sísmica, valor obtenido a partir de un análisis de peligro sísmico considerando las fuentes sismogénicas históricas de la zona y posteriormente se determina una aceleración mínima necesaria donde iniciaría el proceso de licuefacción. Esta tesis tiene por objetivo identificar los factores que influyen en la falla por licuación en el material de relave Zona Norte en la mina Cobriza para evitar problemas de contaminación de suelos, calidad de agua y la posibilidad de ocasionar problemas en la planta concentradora que se encuentra al pie de la presa. Asimismo, se presenta información de definiciones sobre el fenómeno de licuación de suelos y mencionan casos históricos conocidos tanto a nivel mundial como en el Perú sobre los efectos ocasionados por este fenómeno. Posteriormente, se mencionan los estudios realizados para el reconocimiento y caracterización geotécnica del material de relave, así como el procesamiento de dicha información para poder evaluar el potencial de licuación donde se obtiene un factor de seguridad, el cual es un número que representa el potencial de licuefacción en el suelo. Finalmente, se concluye que los resultados demuestran la existencia de un alto potencial de licuación del material de relave en la presa zona norte en la mina cobriza considerando una aceleración de las fuentes sismogénicas históricas y se calcula un factor de seguridad de licuefacción de valor promedio de 1.3, con la finalidad de determinado la aceleración mínima necesaria donde iniciaría el proceso de licuefacción del material de relave. This thesis studies the phenomenon of liquefaction of tailings material in the dam in the northern copper mine is studied, considering that is subjected to a seismic load value obtained from a seismic hazard analysis considering the historic earthquake of gene sources area and then a necessary minimum acceleration which begin the process of liquefaction is determined. This thesis aims to identify the factors that influence the failure by liquefaction in the North Zone tailings material in the Cobriza mine to avoid problems of soil pollution, water quality and the ability to cause problems in the concentrator plant found at the foot of the dam. Also, information on the definition of soil liquefaction phenomenon occurs both known and mentioned about the effects caused by this global phenomenon and Peru historical cases. Subsequently, studies for the recognition and geotechnical characterization of the tailings material and processing of such information are mentioned in order to assess the potential of liquefaction where a safety factor, which is a number that represents the potential is obtained soil liquefaction. Finally, we conclude that the results show that there is a high potential for liquefaction of tailings material in the dam north in the copper mine considering an acceleration of historical seismic sources and a safety factor of liquefaction average value is calculated 1.3, in order to set the required minimum acceleration which begin the process of liquefaction of tailings material.

Numerical analyses are presented in this thesis to address potential stability problems that may occur during gradual raisings and under seismic loading conditions of Aitik tailings dam in northern Sweden. The dam is mainly raised using upstream construction method. It is planned to raise the dam gradually in several stages. Two dam parts were studied. The first dam part is a straight dam portion, and the second dam part is a corner. The main concerns associated with future raisings of the straight dam part were: (i) the stability of the dam could be affected by an increase in excess pore pressures during sequential raisings, (ii) how to gradually strengthen the dam by using rockfill berms as supports in such a way that required slope stability can be achieved with a minimum volume of rockfill berms, and (iii) if the dam is subjected to seismic loading, whether or not an increase in excess pore pressures could lead to extensive liquefaction which may cause a failure. The problems related to the dam corner were that tension zones and/or low compression zones could develop because of the horizontal pressure of the stored tailings on the inside of the curvature of the dam corner.Numerical analyses were conducted on both the dam parts using finite element method. Two dimensional (2D) plane strain finite element model was utilized to analyse the straight dam. The dam corner was analysed with both the three dimensional (3D) finite element model, and the 2D axisymmetric finite element model. Coupled deformation and consolidation analyses, and slope stability analyses were performed on both the dam parts to simulate gradual raisings, and to compute safety factors. In addition to this, dynamic analyses were carried out on the straight dam part to evaluate the potential for liquefaction, and seismic stability of the dam. The seismic behaviour of the dam was analysed for two cases: (i) a normal case (earthquake of 3.6 Swedish local magnitude), and (ii) an extreme case (earthquake of 5.8 moment magnitude).The results of the straight dam part, with only previously existing rockfill berms, indicate that stability of the dam was reduced due to an increase in excess pore pressures during raisings. Rockfill berms were utilized as supports to raise the dam with enough safety. An optimization technique was utilized to minimize the volume of rockfill berms. This technique could result in significant saving of cost of rockfill berms.The results of the dam corner show that tension zones and/or low compression zones were located on the surface of the dam corner, mainly above the phreatic level. It is interpreted that there is no risk of internal erosion through the embankments because no seepage path occurs above the phreatic level, and a filter zone exists along the slope of the dam. It is suggested to gradually strengthen the dam corner with rockfill berms. The results of the 2D axisymmetric analyses of the dam corner were in a fairly good agreement with those of the 3D analyses. This implies that the 2D axisymmetric analyses are valid for this dam corner. This is an important finding as 2D axisymmetric analyses require much less computational time compared to 3D analyses.The results of the dynamic analyses performed on the straight dam (including additional rockfill berms) suggest that, for the extreme case, liquefaction could occur in a limited zone that is located below the surface near the embankments. For both the normal and the extreme case, (i) seismically induced displacements seem to be tolerable, and (ii) the post seismic stability of the dam is considered to be sufficient.The findings of this study have been practically applied to the Aitik tailings dam. In general, the modelling procedure and the optimization technique to minimize volume of rockfill berms, presented in this study, could be applied to other tailings dams. / Godkänd; 2013; 20130513 (muhauc); Tillkännagivande disputation 2013-05-20 Nedanstående person kommer att disputera för avläggande av teknologie doktorsexamen. Namn: Muhammad Auchar Zardari Ämne: Geoteknik/Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering Avhandling: Numerical Analyses of Stability of a Gradually Raised Tailings Dam Opponent: Professor Daichao Sheng, School of Engineering, The University of Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia Ordförande: Professor Sven Knutsson, Institutionen för samhällsbyggnad och naturresurser, Luleå tekniska universitet Tid: Torsdag den 13 juni 2013, kl 10.00 Plats: F1031, Luleå tekniska universitet

Several geotechnical processes can only be reliably interpreted by taking account of the soil-atmosphere interactions. This thesis investigates two geotechnical problems involving soil-atmosphere interactions that drive water flow through the soil skeleton in two opposite directions; Problem 1: slope failure in expansive soils induced by water infiltration, Problem 2: large strain consolidation of soft soils induced by water evaporation. Both problems are of practical interest for safe and economical design of various geotechnical infrastructures. Two major geotechnical activities in the world; namely, the construction of water transfer canal in expansive soil area in China and the deposition of oil sands and hard rock tailings in Canada can be cited as classic examples of Problems 1 and 2, respectively. In such problems, substantial zones of the domain may switch between an unsaturated and saturated condition. Therefore, rational analysis requires simultaneous modelling of both unsaturated and saturated soil behaviour. The first goal of this thesis is to investigate the influence of swelling (the most characteristic behaviour of expansive soils) on slope stability using numerical methods. Swelling of expansive soils contributes to slope instability during rainfall because of two key reasons (i) soil swelling affects the flow process that actually induces swelling, (i.e. a typical coupling phenomenon), and (ii) swelling-induced stress redistribution and displacement development. In this thesis, the first effect is studied by a coupled (mechanical-hydraulic) numerical analysis of the response of a slope to rainfall using commercial software (GeoSlope). The second effect, the swelling-induced stress redistribution and displacement development after wetting, is tracked using a newly developed numerical program. In the program strain softening behaviour is introduced into the elasto-plastic Mohr-Coulomb Model for modelling unsaturated soil. A novel stress (net stress and suction)-dependent model for moduli of elasticity, combined with the predictive model for shear strength based on Soil Water Retention Behaviour are incorporated into the numerical program to achieve a smooth transition between saturated and unsaturated states. The results show that soil swelling can decrease the factor of safety by accelerating the wetting front depth due to hydro-mechanical coupling, while changes of sliding mass geometry has a negligible influence. The change of stress regime associated with soil swelling is significant to induce plastic strain softening (swelling-induced softening) and contribute to the slope failures. The second goal of thesis is to develop a novel computer program for simulation of large strain consolidation of soft soil under both self-weight and evaporation conditions. This program is both theoretically sound and practically applicable. Several basic/advanced constitutive models for unsaturated soils, including State Surface Model (SSM), Barcelona Basic model (BBM), Glasgow Coupled model (GCM) and bounding surface water retention model, are innovatively implemented into a piece-wise linear framework solved using finite difference technique. The developed program is referred to as UNSATCON-(ML), which has been tested using (a) existing analytical/numerical solutions and (b) various laboratory and field studies for single-layer and multiple-layer deposition of hard rock and oil sands tailings. Features of UNSATCON-(ML) that are improvements over existing models typically used to analyze consolidation-desiccation in soft soils include: (i) coupling of soil large deformation with true unsaturated water flow; (ii) correct reproduction of the shrinkage behaviour of soil under evaporation-induced desiccation; (iii) smooth transition between saturated and unsaturated states despite that some selected models are established using two independent stress variables, (iv) ensuring strictly mass conservation of water, and (v) simulation of irrecoverable volume change and hydraulic hysteresis to properly analyze multilayer tailings deposition. A number of hypothetical field case analyses are carried out using UNSATCON-ML, illustrating its applicability to industry.

Tungsten (W) is listed among the European Union (EU) critical raw materials (CRMs) for its supply risk and economic importance. Primarily, tungsten is produced from scheelite and wolframite mineral ores with 0.08-1.5% tungsten trioxide (WO3) grade. However, as primary deposits for these resources are becoming less or lower in grade, alternative sources need to be explored. These alternative tungsten sources include scrap from end-of-life products, mine waste and rejects from the ore beneficiation processes (tailings). The latter alternative source is the focus within this thesis. Historical tailings repositories often pose environmental risks but may also become secondary sources of CRMs. This is because of relatively high minerals and metals content due to less efficient extraction methods and/or relatively low metal prices at the time of active mining. Therefore, reprocessing of such tailings is not only a supply risk-reducing measure but also an approach to remediation that contributes to the mining industry’s aim of moving towards a circular economy. The aim of this thesis has been to develop efficient methods for separating valuable minerals from the tailings in order to leave behind a stable and environmentally safe residue. Geometallurgical studies were conducted by collecting drill core samples from the Smaltjärnen tailings repository in Yxsjöberg, Sweden, for evaluating the potential of this repository for further processing. The tailings were originally produced from the ore that was mined by Yxsjö Mines while it was in operation from 1935 to 1963, with average ore grades of 0.3-0.4 wt.% WO3, 0.2 wt.% Cu and 5-6 wt.% fluorspar. The exploited minerals were scheelite for W, chalcopyrite for Cu and fluorspar. The tailings repository is estimated to have about 2.2 million tons of tailings covering an area of 26 hectares, with elemental concentrations of 1-2 wt.% S, 0.02-0.2 wt.% Cu, 0.02-0.3 wt.% W, 0.02-0.04 wt.% Sn and 0.02-0.03 wt.% Be. Sampling and characterization of the historical tailings were conducted based on geometallurgical units (i.e. a distinction between different layers and locations in the repository), followed by metallurgical test work. The tailings were characterized with regard to color and granulometry, particle size distribution, chemical composition, scheelite mineral occurrence, texture and mineral liberation, as well as mineralogical composition. Based on a comprehensive literature survey, tailings characteristics, and assessment of the earlier processes from which the Yxsjöberg tailings were produced, feasible separation methods were pre-selected involving dry low-intensity magnetic separation (LIMS) and high intensity magnetic separation (HIMS), enhanced gravity separation (EGS) using a Knelson concentrator, and batch froth flotation. The average WO3 and Cu concentration in these tailings based on the sampled locations was 0.15 % and 0.11 % respectively. Applying them to the estimated 2.2 million tons of tailings in this repository gives approximately 3300 tons of WO3 and 2512 tons of Cu. From the metallurgical test work, several feasible processing routes have been identified that need to be further assessed based on the economic and environmental criteria. / REMinE (Improve Resource Efficiency and Minimize Environmental Footprint)

[pt] O presente trabalho tem como objetivo investigar a influência da substituição de frações de areia por rejeito de minério de ferro (RMF) no concreto. Estudaram-se a reatividade do rejeito com o cimento, as variações de porosidade, a trabalhabilidade e o efeito filler do material. Para isso uma série de ensaios químicos, físicos, mecânicos e térmicos foram conduzidos. O RMF foi caracterizado quanto à composição química, granulometria e massa específica. Constatou-se que o material é formado por sílica e hematita e possui massa específica muito próxima à da areia, embora seja uma ordem de grandeza mais fino. Para avaliar a reatividade do RMF confrontou-se os resultados de diversos experimentos. Foram realizados ensaios de compressão axial em pastas de cimento com substituição de 10 por cento, 20 por cento e 30 por cento de cimento por RMF, em diferentes idades. O RMF foi ensaiado quimicamente pelo método Chapelle modificado e o índice de atividade pozolânica foi determinado. Além disso, fragmentos de concreto com RMF, aos 28 e 90 dias, foram ensaiados por termogravimetria e os produtos de hidratação comparados à amostra de referência. O grau de cristalinidade do RMF foi determinado por difração de raios-X. Todas as evidências indicam que o material é inerte. O efeito do RMF na trabalhabilidade do concreto e da pasta de cimento foi avaliado por ensaio de abatimento (slump test) e espalhamento (flow table), respectivamente, e detectou-se um aumento da trabalhabilidade com o aumento da fração de RMF. A porosidade foi avaliada por ensaio de imersão em água no concreto com diferentes frações de RMF, e por ensaio de microtomografia computadorizada, na qual foi determinada a distribuição dos poros. De modo geral, detectou-se tendência de redução da porosidade com o acréscimo do RMF. A resistência mecânica do concreto foi avaliada para substituições de 10 por cento, 20 por cento e 30 por cento de areia por RMF e os resultados foram comparados à substituição das mesmas frações de areia por material inerte, na granulometria do RMF. O efeito filler causou um aumento da resistência, tendo o melhor resultado sido obtido com a fração de 20 por cento de RMF. Também foi avaliado o comportamento à flexão em prismas de concreto com adição de fibras de aço na fração de 30 kg/m cúbicos e 20 por cento de substituição de areia por RMF. Os resultados de cargas máximas, tensões residuais e tenacidade foram, em média, muito próximos nas amostras com RMF e de referência. / [en] The present work aims to investigate the influence of the replacement of sand fractions by iron ore tailings (IOT) on concrete. The reactivity of tailings in the presence of cement, the variation of porosity and workability, and the filler effect of the material were studied. For this purpose, a series of chemical, physical, mechanical and thermal tests were conducted. The IOT was characterized by its chemical composition, particle size and specific weight. It is found that the material is formed by silica and hematite and has a specific weight similar to that of sand, although its grains are ten times smaller. To evaluate the reactivity of the IOT, the results of several experiments were compared. Axial compression tests were performed on cement pastes with replacement of 10 percent, 20 percent and 30 percent cement by IOT at different ages. The IOT was chemically tested by the modified Chapelle test and the pozzolanic activity index was determined. In addition, IOT concrete fragments at 28 and 90 days were tested by thermogravimetry and the hydration products were compared to the reference sample. The degree of crystallinity of the IOT was determined by X-ray diffraction. All evidence indicates that the material is inert. The effect of IOT on the workability of concrete and cement paste was tested by slump test and flow table, respectively, and an increase in workability was detected by increasing the IOT fraction. Porosity was evaluated by the water immersion test on concretes with different IOT fractions, and by computed tomography, which determined the pore distribution. In general, a tendency to reduce porosity was observed as IOT fraction increased. The mechanical strength of the concrete was evaluated for 10 percent, 20 percent and 30 percent sand replacements by IOT and the results were compared to the replacement of the same sand fractions by inert material, in the IOT granulometry. The filler effect caused an increase in resistance, with the best result being the 20 percent IOT fraction. It was also evaluated the flexural behavior in prismatic concrete specimens with addition of steel fibers in the fraction of 30 kg/m cubic and 20 percent of sand substitution by IOT. The results of maximum loads, residual stresses and toughness were on average very similar in the IOT and reference samples.

The cut-off grade determines what rock mass are economic to mine. At the Dannemora mine, in eastern Bergslagen, Sweden, previously processed ore generated tailings (enrichment sand) with an iron content of 21-22 % that was backfilled into large open bodies (stopes) in the mine between 2013-2015. However, the tailings are now considered as ore reserves due to an upgraded processing plant that lowered the cut-off from 30 % Fe to 15 % Fe. Further, with the current lowered cut-off, Grängesberg Exploration Holding AB intends to restart production of iron ore in the Dannemora mine in new ore bodies. However, before starting full operation of excavating the ore bodies and extracting the large ore reserve of tailings, several challenges related to the rock stability need to be well assessed. The main goal of this project is therefore to investigate what would be the safest and most economical technique to extract the tailings that currently act as a stabilising rock mass against the side walls. Investigation of borehole data, drill cores, and geometric calculations, were conducted to characterise the stope host rocks in terms of risk for rock failure and leads to several statements. The results reveal that the host rock has a high strength (70-80 % RQD) and there is a low risk of spalling deformation at the extracted depths when the tailings will be removed. However, deformation as wedge failure could potentially occur when the stabilising tailings will be removed. Further, it is shown that the amount of tailings that can be extracted represent approximately more than one year of iron ore production in the mine. Analysis of the host rock shows that dilution of the tailings can be favourable if the caved wall rocks contain marble or skarn, with ore sections &gt; 15 % Fe. The workflow demonstrates that extraction of low diluted tailings should be done at sublevel 350 meters, before extraction of high diluted tailings at sublevel 442-446 meters. Backfilling must be done simultaneously in order to preserve the stability against the side walls as the tailings are removed. This project demonstrates that tailing extraction is possible, while maintaining the stability of the host rock. The workflow presented in this thesis could be used as an approach for similar mining operations aiming to extract backfilled material and once again process it. / En cut-off halt bestämmer vid vilken halt som en bergmassa innehållandes värdefulla metaller, blir ekonomiskt brytningsbar (malm). Vid Dannemoragruvan i östra Bergslagen, Sverige, har tidigare bearbetad malm bildat en icke värdefull restprodukt (anrikningssand), innehållandes en järnhalt om 21-22 %, som återfylldes i stora brytningsrum inuti gruvan mellan 2013-2015. Anrikningssanden har nu blivit ansett som malm igen då ett uppgraderat anrikningsverk sänkt cut-off halten från 30 % Fe, till 15 % Fe. Med den sänkta cut-off halten, undersöker Grängesberg Exploration Holding AB vidare hur en återstart av Dannemoragruvan, och utbrytning av ännu inte utbrutna malmkroppar, och uttag av den stora malmreserven av anrikningssanden, ska ske. Däremot måste flera utmaningar i form av bergstabilitet undersökas, innan uttaget av malmkropparna och den återfyllda anrikningssanden kan ske. Detta arbete siktar till att undersöka vilket tillvägagångsätt som skulle vara det säkraste och lönsammaste att extrahera anrikningssanden ifrån, då de agerar stabiliserande mot sidoväggarna i de stora brytningsrummen. Undersökning av borrhålsdata, borrkärnor, och geometriska beräkningar, utfördas för att karakterisera sidoberget till brytningsrummen för att förstå risken för bergdeformation. Resultaten visar på en stabil bergmassa (70-80 % RQD) med en liten risk för spjälkning (uppsprickning) vid de undersökta djupen. Risk för bergdeformation inträffar i stället som kilutfall när den stabiliserande anrikningssanden extraheras. Vidare beräknas det att ungefär mer än en årsproduktion av järnmalm kan extraheras i form av anrikningssand från de återfyllda brytningsrummen. Analys av sidoberget visar dessutom att utspädning av anrikningssanden genom blockutfall och uppsprickning, kan bli fördelaktigt om sidoberget innehåller marmor eller skarn med malmsektioner &gt; 15 % järn. Tillvägagångssättet för extrahering av anrikningssanden bör ske från djup 350 meter, innan den högre halten av utspädd anrikningssand extraheras från djup 442-446 meter. Återfyllning måste ske samtidigt för att bevara bergsstabiliteten mot sidoväggarna. Detta arbete visar att extrahering av anrikningssanden är möjligt, samtidigt som bergstabiliteten bevaras. Arbetsflödet skulle kunna användas som ett tillvägagångssätt för framtida gruvoperationer som söker att extrahera återfyllt material och åter anrika det.