This thesis describes a series of experiments in human observers using neurophysiological and behavioural approaches to investigate the effects of varying haptic stimuli, attentional demand and age on motor control and perception during haptic sensing (i.e., using the hand to seek sensory information by touch). In Experiments I-IV, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) was used to explore changes in corticomotor excitability when participants were actively engaged in haptic sensing tasks. These studies showed that corticospinal excitability, as reflected in motor evoked potential (MEP) amplitude, was greatly enhanced when participants were engaged in different forms of haptic sensing. Interestingly, this extra corticomotor facilitation was absent when participants performed finger movements without haptic sensing or when attention was diverted away from haptic input by a concurrent cognitive task (Exp I). This provided strong evidence that the observed corticomotor facilitation was likely central in origin and related to haptic attention. Neuroimaging has shown activation of the parieto-frontal network likely subserves this aspect of haptic perception. Further, this haptic-specific corticomotor facilitation was finely modulated depending on whether participants focused attention on identifying material (texture) as opposed to geometric properties of scanned surfaces (Exp II). With regards to aging effects, haptic-related corticomotor facilitation was associated with higher recognition accuracy in seniors (Exp III). In line with this, seniors exhibited similar levels of haptic-related corticomotor facilitation to young adults when task demands were adjusted for age (Exp IV). Interestingly, both young and senior adults also showed substantial corticomotor facilitation in the ‘resting’ hand when the ipsilateral hand was engaged in haptic sensing (Exp IV). Simply touching the stimulus without being required to identify its properties (no attentional task demands) produced no extra corticomotor facilitation in either hand or age group, attesting again to the specificity of the effects with regards to haptic attention. In Experiments V-VI, the ability to recognise 2-D letters by touch was investigated using kinematic and psychophysical measures. In Experiment V, we characterized how age affected contact forces deployed at the fingertip. This investigation showed that older adults exhibited lower normal force and increased letter-to-letter variability in normal force when compared to young adults. This difference in contact force likely contributed to longer contact times and lower recognition accuracy in older adults, suggesting a central contribution to age-related declines in haptic perception. Consistent with this interpretation, Experiment VI showed that haptic letter recognition in older adults was characterized not only by lower recognition accuracy but also by substantial increases in response times and specific patterns of confusion between letters. All in all, these investigations highlight the critical interaction of central factors such as attentional demand with aging effects on motor and perceptual aspects of haptic sensing. Of particular significance is the clear demonstration that corticomotor excitability is greatly enhanced when a haptic sensing component (i.e., attending to specific haptic features) is added to simple finger movements performed at minimal voluntary effort levels (typically <15 % of the maximal effort). These observations underline the therapeutic potential of active sensory training strategies based on haptic sensing tasks for the re-education of motor and perceptual deficits in hand function (e.g., subsequent to a stroke). The importance of adjusting attentional demands and stimuli is highlighted, particularly with regards to special considerations in the aging population.

Dans la vie de tous les jours, il arrive que nos actions soient perturbées par desvariations rapides des forces externes de notre environnement. Afin d'atteindre notre but, nousdevons alors réagir “vite et bien” à ces perturbations de mouvement, ce qui implique la mise enjeu à la fois de processus cognitifs et de processus sensori-moteurs. Nous nous sommesintéressés aux mécanismes corticaux (engagés notamment au niveau du cortex sensorimoteurprimaire) sous-tendant les interactions entre fonctions cognitive et sensorimotrice permettantd'adapter la réaction à la perturbation en fonction de notre intention, en nous efforçant de fairele lien entre les mécanismes impliqués au cours de la préparation et de la réalisation de laréaction. En utilisant le couplage EEG-TMS (avec enregistrement de l'EMG), nous avons menéune approche par stimulation-enregistrement, permettant d'observer simultanément lesmécanismes corticaux et corticospinaux précédant et suivant la stimulation, et ainsi de mieuxcomprendre le lien reliant l'activité cérébrale et le comportement.Dans l’étude 1, nous avons utilisé une perturbation motrice centrale, c'est-à-dire quenous avons demandé au sujet soit de résister soit d'assister un mouvement évoqué directementau niveau cortical par TMS. Ceci nous a permis de montrer que les processus cognitifs peuventinfluencer directement l'excitabilité corticale et corticospinale, avant la mise en jeu deprocessus sensorimoteurs impliqués dans l’exécution du mouvement. Lorsque le sujet s’estpréparé à résister au mouvement évoqué par TMS, l'augmentation anticipée de l'activité desréseaux intracorticaux inhibiteurs de M1 diminue l'excitabilité corticale, menant à une diminutionde l’excitabilité corticospinale, réduisant ainsi l’amplitude du mouvement évoqué par TMS.Dans les études suivantes (2, 3 et 4), nous nous sommes intéressés aux mécanismescorticaux et corticospinaux impliqués dans la préparation et la réaction rapide à uneperturbation périphérique du mouvement. Nous avons demandé au sujet soit de résister soitde se laisser-faire par une extension passive du poignet, et avons étudié les mécanismesimpliqués dans la modulation de la composante à longue latence du réflexe d'étirement (LLSR,qui débute environ 50 ms après la perturbation), en fonction de l'intention. Concernantl’excitabilité corticospinale, les résultats montrent que, lors de la préparation à uneperturbation périphérique, les phénomènes d'intégration sensori-motrice engendrés par lesafférences sensorielles dues à la perturbation sont pris en compte dans le réglage anticipé del'excitabilité corticospinale, afin que la réaction, déclenchée par les afférences sensorielles, soitadaptée à l'intention du sujet (étude 2). Au niveau cortical, une modification de l'activité desréseaux intracorticaux de M1 en fonction de l'intention précède la modulation de l'activitécorticale du cortex sensorimoteur primaire, liée à la genèse du LLSR, suggérant que desprocessus anticipateurs influencent l’activité du cortex sensorimoteur primaire afin que saréponse précoce à la perturbation soit adaptée à l'intention du sujet (étude 3). Enfin, dansl’étude 4, nous avons mis en évidence le rôle d'une aire motrice non primaire, la SMA proper,dans la modulation du réflexe d'étirement en fonction de l'intention.Ainsi, lorsque nous anticipons une perturbation motrice, des processus préparatoiresspécifiques (dépendants de notre intention), et différents de ceux impliqués avant la réalisationd’un mouvement sans variation des forces externes, sont mis en jeu dans la SMA proper et lecortex sensorimoteur primaire de manière à ce que la réaction rapide, déclenchée au niveau ducortex sensorimoteur par les afférences sensorielles induites par la perturbation, soit adaptée àl’intention du sujet. / In everyday life, our actions can be perturbed by rapid variations of environmentalexternal forces. In order to achieve our goals, we have to react “well and fast” to thesemovement perturbations. This reaction implies both cognitive and sensorimotor processes. Wewere interested in the cortical mechanisms (mainly involving the primary motor cortex, M1)underlying the interaction between cognitive and sensorimotor functions that allows theadaptation of the reaction to the perturbation according to the intention. We tried to relate themechanisms implicated during the preparation with those implicated during the realization ofthe reaction. With combined EEG-TMS (with EMG recording), we used a stimulation-recordingapproach, allowing simultaneous observation of cortical and corticospinal mechanisms, bothbefore and after the stimulation. This approach helps to obtain to a better understanding of therelationship between cerebral activity and behavior.In the first experiment, we used a central motor perturbation, i.e. subjects were asked toresist or to assist a movement evoked directly at the cortical level using TMS. We showed thatcognitive processes can directly influence cortical and corticospinal excitability before anyinvolvement of the sensorimotor processes related to the movement execution. When subjectsprepared to resist the TMS-evoked movement, the anticipatory increased activity of theintracortical inhibitory networks of M1 decreased the cortical excitability, leading to adecreased corticospinal excitability and thus to a reduced TMS-evoked movement.In the following experiments (2, 3 and 4), we were interested in cortical andcorticospinal mechanisms engaged during the preparation and the reaction to a peripheralmovement perturbation. We asked subjects either to resist or to not-react (to “let-go”) to apassive wrist extension, and we studied the mechanisms underlying the modulation of the longlatency stretch reflex (LLSR, starting about 50 ms after the perturbation) according to theintention. Concerning the corticospinal excitability, the results showed that, during thepreparation of a reaction to a peripheral perturbation, the anticipatory tuning of thecorticospinal excitability takes into account sensorimotor integrative phenomenons induced bythe afferent input due to the perturbation in such a way that the reaction, triggered by theafferent inputs, is adapted to the subject’s intention (experiment 2). At the cortical level, achange of M1 intracortical network activity (before the perturbation) precedes the modulationof the primary sensorimotor cortex activity that is linked to the LLSR generation (after theperturbation). This strongly suggests that anticipatory processes preset the primarysensorimotor cortex in order to adapt its early response to the perturbation according to thesubject’s intention (experiment 3). Finally, temporary inactivation of SMA proper (induced byTMS) showed that this non-primary motor area is also implicated in the modulation of thestretch reflex according to the intention (experiment 4).In conclusion, when we expect a motor perturbation, intention-specific preparatoryprocesses are engaged in SMA proper and the primary sensorimotor cortex that are differentfrom those involved in the realization of a movement without external force variations. Thesepreparatory processes allow the early motor reaction, generated by the primary sensorimotorcortex (triggered by the afferent input induced by the perturbation) to be adapted to thesubject’s intention.

Contemporary research has been examining potential links existing among sensory, motor and attentional systems. Previous studies using TMS have shown that the abrupt onset of sounds can both capture attention and modulate motor cortex excitability, which may reflect the potential need for a behavioral response to the attended event. TMS, however, only quantifies motor cortex excitability immediately following the deliverance of a TMS pulse. Therefore, the temporal development of how the motor cortex is modulated by sounds can’t be quantified using TMS. Thus, the purpose of the present study is to use time frequency analysis of EEG to identify the time course of cortical mechanisms underlying increased motor cortex excitability after sound onset. Subjects sat in a sound attenuated booth with their hands outstretched at 45-degree angles while frequency modulated sounds were intermittently presented from a speaker either in the left and right hemispace. Our results indicated a transient reduction in EEG power from 18-24 Hz (300-600 ms latency) and then a long lasting increase in EEG power that began at ~800 ms and continued until at least 1.7 sec. The latency of EEG power changes was shorter for sounds presented from the right speaker at both time periods. When sounds were presented from the right speaker the contralateral hemisphere over motor regions also showed greater power increases after 800 ms relative to the ipsilateral hemisphere. In addition, power increases were greater in the left-handed subjects (8-12 Hz). Results showed that sounds increased EEG power at the time of a previously observed increase in motor cortex excitability. Findings also suggest an increased attentional salience to the right hemispace in neurologically normal subjects and asymmetrical hemispheric activations in right and left-handers. / acase@tulane.edu

This thesis describes a series of experiments in human observers using neurophysiological and behavioural approaches to investigate the effects of varying haptic stimuli, attentional demand and age on motor control and perception during haptic sensing (i.e., using the hand to seek sensory information by touch). In Experiments I-IV, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) was used to explore changes in corticomotor excitability when participants were actively engaged in haptic sensing tasks. These studies showed that corticospinal excitability, as reflected in motor evoked potential (MEP) amplitude, was greatly enhanced when participants were engaged in different forms of haptic sensing. Interestingly, this extra corticomotor facilitation was absent when participants performed finger movements without haptic sensing or when attention was diverted away from haptic input by a concurrent cognitive task (Exp I). This provided strong evidence that the observed corticomotor facilitation was likely central in origin and related to haptic attention. Neuroimaging has shown activation of the parieto-frontal network likely subserves this aspect of haptic perception. Further, this haptic-specific corticomotor facilitation was finely modulated depending on whether participants focused attention on identifying material (texture) as opposed to geometric properties of scanned surfaces (Exp II). With regards to aging effects, haptic-related corticomotor facilitation was associated with higher recognition accuracy in seniors (Exp III). In line with this, seniors exhibited similar levels of haptic-related corticomotor facilitation to young adults when task demands were adjusted for age (Exp IV). Interestingly, both young and senior adults also showed substantial corticomotor facilitation in the ‘resting’ hand when the ipsilateral hand was engaged in haptic sensing (Exp IV). Simply touching the stimulus without being required to identify its properties (no attentional task demands) produced no extra corticomotor facilitation in either hand or age group, attesting again to the specificity of the effects with regards to haptic attention. In Experiments V-VI, the ability to recognise 2-D letters by touch was investigated using kinematic and psychophysical measures. In Experiment V, we characterized how age affected contact forces deployed at the fingertip. This investigation showed that older adults exhibited lower normal force and increased letter-to-letter variability in normal force when compared to young adults. This difference in contact force likely contributed to longer contact times and lower recognition accuracy in older adults, suggesting a central contribution to age-related declines in haptic perception. Consistent with this interpretation, Experiment VI showed that haptic letter recognition in older adults was characterized not only by lower recognition accuracy but also by substantial increases in response times and specific patterns of confusion between letters. All in all, these investigations highlight the critical interaction of central factors such as attentional demand with aging effects on motor and perceptual aspects of haptic sensing. Of particular significance is the clear demonstration that corticomotor excitability is greatly enhanced when a haptic sensing component (i.e., attending to specific haptic features) is added to simple finger movements performed at minimal voluntary effort levels (typically <15 % of the maximal effort). These observations underline the therapeutic potential of active sensory training strategies based on haptic sensing tasks for the re-education of motor and perceptual deficits in hand function (e.g., subsequent to a stroke). The importance of adjusting attentional demands and stimuli is highlighted, particularly with regards to special considerations in the aging population.

The reticular-activating hypofrontality model of acute exercise (RAH) predicts exercise-induced hypoactivity in frontal cortex which mediates executive function. Connors Continuous Performance Test (CCPT) was used to investigate changes in executive function during- and post treadmill running in healthy volunteers (n=30, 15 male). In a randomized order, subjects performed the CCPT at rest, during low- (LI; 63% maximal heart rate; MHR) and moderate intensity (MI; 75% MHR). Separately, subjects then performed isocalorifically matched exercise bouts of LI, MI and high intensity interval training (HIT) consisting of 4x4 min with 90% MHR and 3 min recovery at 60-70% MHR. Repeated measures ANOVAs revealed main effects of exercise intensity for reaction time RT during- (p≤0.001) and post exercise (p≤0.0001). Subsequent analyses showed an overall increase of RT during exercise compared to rest (p≤0.005). RT decreased significantly from rest to post exercise levels in an exercise intensity dependent, linear fashion (p≤0.0001). Commission errors showed a non significant linear trend to increase both during (p=0.057), and post exercise (p=0.052) as a function of intensity. In a follow up study, we sought to relate observed exercise effects to frontal cortex activity through the use of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) (n=4) and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) over the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). Prior to TMS stimulation cortical excitability was estimated post running through motor-evoked potentials (MEP) elicited from the primary motor cortex (M1) induced by single burst TMS and measured in the first dorsal interosseous (FDI) muscle using electromyography. At rest, inhibitory cathodal tDCS with left DLPFC cathode and right supraorbital anode led to improved reaction time and increased amount of commission errors, whereas anodal stimulatory tDCS in the immediate post exercise period was unable to recover the post exercise effect. Continuous theta burst stimulation over the left DLPFC post running further impaired inhibitory control and facilitated reaction time. Different findings during- and after- exercise suggests that potential contributing mechanisms such as computational and metabolic factors may be differentially active during these respective conditions. Furthermore, the fact that an inhibitory TMS protocol pronounced the post running effects even more and that we were able to mimic the reported RAH effects at rest with inhibitory frontal tDCS, but observed different patterns during exercise, suggests that the latter state cannot be fully explained by reducing activity in the left frontal cortex alone. Failure to modify the after exercise effect with stimulatory tDCS also supports an interplay of different factors and might emphasize the strong, robust effects of exercise that cannot simply be attenuated by current application. Increases in MEP post running for 35min paired with the observed performance decrements imply an excited state of M1 and might serve as an explanatory cross-link to central fatigue suggesting that a hypofrontal state might enhance the motor cortical drive to activate muscles.

Background and aims: The primary motor cortex (M1) controls voluntary motor behaviours. M1 has been identified to play a major role in the execution of voluntary corticospinal tasks as well as self-initiated corticobulbar tasks. However, the involvement of M1 in more complex corticubulbar tasks, such as swallowing, is not yet fully understood. Swallowing is quite different from other voluntary motor tasks as it has both voluntary and reflexive components. The degree of M1 involvement in the pharyngeal, or more reflexive, component of swallowing is unclear. Studies investigating the role of M1 in swallowing have yielded contradictory findings regarding the specific functional contribution of M1 to swallowing. Therefore, further investigation is warranted to clarify the role of M1 in pharyngeal swallowing. Discrete saliva or water swallowing has been utilized in most studies investigating neurophysiology of swallowing in health and disease. However, individuals most frequently complete multiple, consecutive swallows during the ingestion of liquid. Biomechanical differences between discrete and continuous water swallows have been identified using videofluoroscopic swallowing study (VFSS). However, no studies have investigated the pharyngeal pressure differences between these two swallowing tasks. Additional insights into task differences may be revealed through evaluation of pharyngeal pressure utilizing pharyngeal manometry. This research programme sought to clarify the role of M1 in reflexively and volitionally initiated pharyngeal swallowing. In order to understand M1 involvement in the execution of swallowing, comparative tasks that require known dependence on M1 were also included in this research programme. This research programme addressed the biomechanical changes in motor behaviours as a result of neural disruption during the performance of a number of motor tasks. This neural disruption was intrinsically generated through application of dual task (DT) paradigm and extrinsically generated using single pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). A secondary aim of this research programme was to identify the differences in pharyngeal pressure generation between discrete and continuous swallowing. Methods: Twenty-four right handed participants (12 males, average age= 24.4, SD= 6.3) were recruited to this research programme. A number of motor tasks that vary in complexity were tested. These tasks included: volitional swallowing, reflexive swallowing, eyebrow movement, jaw movement and finger tapping with right, left, or bilateral index fingers. Participants performed multiple trials of several tasks in each study. Repetitions of tasks during a single session may affect performance due to factors such as fatigue or practice. A baseline study was undertaken to determine within-participant variability of measures across repeated trials. Following the baseline study, the role of M1 in pharyngeal swallowing was investigated in two main studies in counter balanced order. The role of M1 in pharyngeal swallowing was evaluated by investigating swallowing parameters during neural disruption using a DT paradigm. Participants performed tasks in isolation (baseline) and with interference that consisted of pairing swallowing with comparative task that activates M1 (fingers tapping and eyebrow movement tasks). In the other study, single pulse TMS was utilized to create an electrophysiological disruption to the areas of M1 associated with muscular representation of a number of motor behaviours (swallowing tasks, jaw movement and fingers tapping tasks). Stimulation was provided to both hemispheres in random order to evaluate laterality effects. Swallowing parameters and the performance of the other motor tasks were evaluated when performed with and without electrophysiological disruption. Differences in pharyngeal pressure generation between discrete and continuous swallowing were investigated using pharyngeal manometry. Pharyngeal pressures were recorded at three locations: upper pharynx, mid-pharynx and upper esophageal sphincter (UES) during four swallowing types: discrete saliva swallowing, discrete 10 ml swallowing, volitional continuous swallowing, and reflexive continuous swallowing. The research paradigm used in this research programme identified the effect of experimental conditions on the rate and regularity of task performance. In addition, pharyngeal manometry was utilised to measure the effect of experimental conditions on the pattern of the pharyngeal pressure generation during swallowing. Within subject differences from baseline were identified by means of Repeated Measures Analyses of Variance (RM-ANOVA). Results: Initial analysis of the data revealed that repetition of tasks within a session did not affect the rate and regularity of voluntary corticospinal tasks, voluntary corticiobulbar tasks nor swallowing tasks. In addition, repeating the swallowing tasks during a session did not affect pharyngeal pressure as measured by pharyngeal manometry. When motor tasks were performed concurrently in the DT paradigm, rate and regularity of eyebrow movements were significantly decreased when paired with swallowing tasks, whereas rate and regularity of swallowing were significantly decreased when paired with left finger tapping, but not right finger tapping. However, there was no significant effect of any task on the pattern of pharyngeal pressure generation. Extrinsically generated disruption using TMS significantly reduced rate and regularity of finger tapping tasks and regularity of jaw movement and swallowing tasks. In addition, interruption of pharyngeal M1 during the volitional swallowing task produced significant increase in the duration but not the amplitude of the pharyngeal pressure. Pharyngeal pressure generation differed between swallowing types and boluses types, in that saliva swallowing produced longer pharyngeal pressure duration and lower nadir pressure than water swallows. Discrete water bolus swallowing produced longer UES opening compared to both saliva swallowing or continuous water swallowing. Conclusion: The results of this research programme provided valuable methodological information regarding the effect of trials on task performance as well as identifying pharyngeal pressure differences between discrete and continuous swallowing. In addition to the methodological contribution, this research programme expanded on previous knowledge of neural control of swallowing, in that it extended the findings regarding potential role of M1 in pharyngeal swallowing. Given the absent effect of task repetition on the performance of corticospinal and corticobulbar motor tasks, it is speculated that outcomes of research investigating the effect of experimental manipulation on motor tasks performance is due to the experimental tasks, rather than natural variance in the data. The effect of swallowing on the rate and regularity of eyebrow movement, when performed concurrently using DT paradigm, suggest bilateral functional overlapping to a significant degree between neural substrates that control swallowing and orofacial muscles. These results offer partial support of bilateral representation of swallowing in the cortex. In addition, results further revealed potential involvement of right M1 in the regulation of pharyngeal swallowing as evidenced by a disruptive effect of left finger tapping on the rate and regularity of swallowing. The results from the hemispheric TMS disruption study support the active involvement M1 in the execution of voluntary corticospinal and corticobulbar motor tasks. In addition, the current findings extended previous knowledge of neural control of pharyngeal swallowing by documenting the effect of neural disruption on the regularity and pharyngeal pressure measures during volitional and reflexive swallowing. The current programme documented potential role of M1 in the control of pharyngeal swallowing possibly by modulating the motor plan at the swallowing CPG in the brainstem. This project is the first to document pharyngeal pressure differences between discrete and continuous swallowing. These findings contribute valuable information to the swallowing literature as limited number of studies investigated the biomechanical differences between discrete and continuous liquid ingestion. This knowledge will assist clinicians and researchers in identifying the pharyngeal pressure differences between normal and abnormal swallowing in different swallowing types and ultimately guide their rehabilitation decisions. Data from this research programme will add to the existing knowledge of neurophysiology of swallowing, thereby facilitating understanding of swallowing pathophysiology which is crucial for appropriate management of swallowing disorders.

Motion-selectivity in human visual cortex comprises a number of different cortical loci including V1, V2, V3A, V3B, hV5/MT+ and V6 (Wandell et al., 2007). This thesis sought to investigate the specific functions of V3A and sub-divisions of hV5/MT+ (TO-1 and TO-2) by using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to transiently disrupt cortical activations within these areas during psychophysical tasks of motion perception. The tasks were chosen to coincide with previous non-human primate and human neuroimaging literature; translational, radial and rotational direction discrimination tasks and identification of the position of a focus of expansion. These results assert that TO-1 and TO-2 are functionally distinct subdivisions of hV5/MT+, as we have shown that both TO-1 and TO-2 are responsible for processing translational motion direction whilst only TO-2 is responsible for processing radial motion direction. In ipsilateral space, it was found that TO-1 and TO-2 both contribute to the processing of ipsilateral translational motion. Taken in a wider context, further results also suggested that these areas may form part of a network of cortical areas contributing to perception of self-motion (heading/egomotion), as TO-2 was not found to be responsible for processing the position of the central focus of expansion (imperative for self-direction). Instead, area V3A has been implicated as functionally responsible for processing this attribute of vision. Overall it is clear that TO-1, TO-2 and V3A have specific, distinct functions that contribute towards both parallel and serial motion processing pathways within the human brain.

La stimulation magnétique transcrânienne (TMS) est une technique de stimulation corticale non-invasive.Depuis son apparition au milieu des années 1980, les évolutions technologiques qu’elle a connues ontconsidérablement amélioré sa fiabilité, sa précision ainsi que sa reproductibilité. Ces progrès ont favorisél’émergence d’un grand nombre d’applications, tant dans le domaine de la recherche fondamentale enneurosciences cognitives que dans celui de la recherche clinique. Cette thèse a pour objectif d’étudierles apports méthodologiques et fondamentaux de la TMS robotisée, dernière avancée technologique dudomaine. Grâce à un placement et un suivi automatisés de la bobine de stimulation, la TMS robotiséeouvre en effet la voie à l’automatisation des protocoles, ainsi qu’à l’élaboration de nouvelles approchesen neuroimagerie fonctionnelle. Les deux premières études de ce travail abordent ce premier point, enproposant le développement de deux outils nécessaires à l’automatisation du paramétrage des protocolesde TMS : CortExTool et AutoHS. CortExTool est une boîte à outils qui permet l’analyse automatisée dessignaux électromyographiques évalués durant le paramétrage, et AutoHS un modèle bayésien assurantune recherche automatique du point chaud moteur, étape essentielle de la procédure. Testée sur donnéesvirtuelles et comparée expérimentalement à la pratique manuelle d’experts sur 19 volontaires sains, laprocédure automatisée proposée ici apparaît au moins aussi fiable, tout en étant plus rapide et repro-ductible. La troisième et dernière étude de cette thèse s’attache quant à elle aux apports fondamentauxpossibles de cette technologie. Elle propose un protocole qui permet la cartographie extensive des ré-ponses électroencéphalographiques évoquées par la TMS sur 18 aires corticales réparties sur l’ensembledu néocortex. Appliquée sur 22 volontaires sains, l’analyse des propriétés dynamiques de ces réponses faitapparaître des spécificités régionales ainsi que des réseaux corticaux partageant des propriétés communes.Celles-ci étant liées aux caractéristiques cytoarchitecturales des aires stimulées, nos résultats apportent lapreuve de concept pour la cytoarchitectonie fonctionnelle, qui pourrait aboutir à une nouvelle méthodede parcellisation in vivo du cortex chez l’Homme. L’ensemble des résultats de cette thèse confirme l’intérêtde la robotisation de cette technique, qui pourrait à terme faciliter la mise en œuvre des protocoles par lescentres cliniques, et amener de nouveaux outils d’exploration fonctionnelle pour un meilleur diagnosticdes pathologies psychiatriques et neurologiques. / Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) is a non invasive cortical stimulation tool. Major technologicalevolution has continuously increased the spatial reliability and reproducibility of TMS since its beginningin the middle of the 80’s, by minimizing the influence of human and experimental factors. Therefore, TMSestablished itself as a powerful technique for probing and treating the human brain. The aim of this thesisis to study the methodological and basics contribution of robotized TMS, as being the last technologicaladvance to date. By means of the automatic handling of the TMS coil, robotized TMS opens new avenues forthe automation of stimulation protocol, and to new approaches in functional neuroimaging. The two firststudies of this work aim at developing two tools that are still needed to achieve the automation of set-upprocedures of TMS protocols : CortExTool and AutoHS. CortExTool is a toolbox allowing the automaticanalysis of electromyographic signals, while AutoHS is a Bayesian model aiming at automatically finding themotor hotspot, which are two critical ingredients used during such procedures. We validated our automaticset-up procedure on both virtual and real data, during an experimental comparison against manual set-upprocedures on 19 healthy volunteers. Results showed that the automatic procedure was at least as reliableas the manual one, while being faster and more reproducible. The third and last study of this thesis aimed atexploring new basics approaches offered by this technology. We developed a protocol allowing the extensivemapping of evoked electroencephalographic responses on 18 cortical targets covering the whole neocortex,and tested it on 22 healthy volunteers. The analysis of the dynamical properties of these responses revealedregional specificities as well as cortical networks sharing similar properties. Our results provide the proofof concept of functional cytoarchitectonics, that would guide the parcellation of the human cortex in vivobased on its intrinsic responses to local perturbations. The results of this thesis are promising regarding thenew possibilities offered by robotized TMS. Its use could decrease the experimental variability, facilitatethe handling of TMS protocols used for research and clinical routine, and finally offer new functionalexploration approaches that could allow a better diagnosis of psychiatric and neurological pathologies.

Submitted by Automa??o e Estat?stica (sst@bczm.ufrn.br) on 2017-01-27T12:26:54Z No. of bitstreams: 1 JoseSoaresBatistaLopes_TESE.pdf: 3701361 bytes, checksum: 945caee9725d682534c235543f919e4b (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Arlan Eloi Leite Silva (eloihistoriador@yahoo.com.br) on 2017-01-30T13:07:29Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 JoseSoaresBatistaLopes_TESE.pdf: 3701361 bytes, checksum: 945caee9725d682534c235543f919e4b (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-01-30T13:07:29Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 JoseSoaresBatistaLopes_TESE.pdf: 3701361 bytes, checksum: 945caee9725d682534c235543f919e4b (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-06-17 / Este trabalho descreve o estudo e a implementa??o digital embarcado em um DSP TMS 3208F28335 para o controle vetorial de velocidade do motor-mancal com bobinado dividido de 4 p?los com 250W de pot?ncia. As t?cnicas inteligentes: ANFIS e as Redes Neurais foram investigadas e implementadas computacionalmente para a avalia??o do desempenho do motor-mancal nas seguintes condi??es: operando como estimador de par?metros incertos, e como controlador de velocidade, respectivamente. Para isso, utilizou-se o programa MATLAB? e seu toolbox para as simula??es e os ajustes dos par?metros envolvendo a estrutura ANFIS, e tamb?m para as simula??es com a Rede Neural. Os resultados simulados mostraram um bom desempenho para as duas t?cnicas aplicadas, de forma diferente: como estimador, e como controlador de velocidade utilizando ambas um modelo do motor de indu??o operando como um motor-mancal. A parte experimental para o controle vetorial de velocidade utiliza tr?s malhas de controles: corrente, posi??o radial e velocidade, onde foram investigados a configura??o dos perif?ricos, as interfaces ou drivers para o acionamento do motor-mancal. Detalhes de configura??o dos perif?ricos do DSP TMS 3208F335 s?o descritas neste trabalho, assim como, as interfaces respons?veis pela aquisi??o da corrente, posi??o radial e velocidade do rotor. Por ?ltimo, s?o mostrados os resultados experimentas do motor-mancal comparando o funcionamento do controle vetorial cl?ssico com o controle neural.

This thesis describes a series of experiments in human observers using neurophysiological and behavioural approaches to investigate the effects of varying haptic stimuli, attentional demand and age on motor control and perception during haptic sensing (i.e., using the hand to seek sensory information by touch). In Experiments I-IV, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) was used to explore changes in corticomotor excitability when participants were actively engaged in haptic sensing tasks. These studies showed that corticospinal excitability, as reflected in motor evoked potential (MEP) amplitude, was greatly enhanced when participants were engaged in different forms of haptic sensing. Interestingly, this extra corticomotor facilitation was absent when participants performed finger movements without haptic sensing or when attention was diverted away from haptic input by a concurrent cognitive task (Exp I). This provided strong evidence that the observed corticomotor facilitation was likely central in origin and related to haptic attention. Neuroimaging has shown activation of the parieto-frontal network likely subserves this aspect of haptic perception. Further, this haptic-specific corticomotor facilitation was finely modulated depending on whether participants focused attention on identifying material (texture) as opposed to geometric properties of scanned surfaces (Exp II). With regards to aging effects, haptic-related corticomotor facilitation was associated with higher recognition accuracy in seniors (Exp III). In line with this, seniors exhibited similar levels of haptic-related corticomotor facilitation to young adults when task demands were adjusted for age (Exp IV). Interestingly, both young and senior adults also showed substantial corticomotor facilitation in the ‘resting’ hand when the ipsilateral hand was engaged in haptic sensing (Exp IV). Simply touching the stimulus without being required to identify its properties (no attentional task demands) produced no extra corticomotor facilitation in either hand or age group, attesting again to the specificity of the effects with regards to haptic attention. In Experiments V-VI, the ability to recognise 2-D letters by touch was investigated using kinematic and psychophysical measures. In Experiment V, we characterized how age affected contact forces deployed at the fingertip. This investigation showed that older adults exhibited lower normal force and increased letter-to-letter variability in normal force when compared to young adults. This difference in contact force likely contributed to longer contact times and lower recognition accuracy in older adults, suggesting a central contribution to age-related declines in haptic perception. Consistent with this interpretation, Experiment VI showed that haptic letter recognition in older adults was characterized not only by lower recognition accuracy but also by substantial increases in response times and specific patterns of confusion between letters. All in all, these investigations highlight the critical interaction of central factors such as attentional demand with aging effects on motor and perceptual aspects of haptic sensing. Of particular significance is the clear demonstration that corticomotor excitability is greatly enhanced when a haptic sensing component (i.e., attending to specific haptic features) is added to simple finger movements performed at minimal voluntary effort levels (typically <15 % of the maximal effort). These observations underline the therapeutic potential of active sensory training strategies based on haptic sensing tasks for the re-education of motor and perceptual deficits in hand function (e.g., subsequent to a stroke). The importance of adjusting attentional demands and stimuli is highlighted, particularly with regards to special considerations in the aging population.