In Namibia, as in many other countries, curriculum changes have resulted from a “highly complex mix of ideological, political, social, philosophical, economic and other influences” (McGee, 1995, cited by Swarts). Over time some influences become stronger while others lose ground. Different conceptions exist as to what school curricula should be. These conceptions are sometimes referred to as “theories of curricular” or ideologies (ibid). Ideologies in general are “belief systems that provide value premises from which decisions about practical educational matters are made” (Eisner, 1994:47). They derive from broad, international perspectives and views. Some views are unproblematic in that they are generally agreed, such as all children should learn to read and write. Others are more controversial and problematic, e.g. whether sex education should be taught in school. As a result of exposure to other views and perspectives, there is overlap between ideologies and no ideology represents a clear-cut concise school of thought. Nevertheless they provide a theoretical basis for the Home Ecology syllabus. This paper will attempt to provide a critical analysis of the Home Ecology syllabus, the socio-historic and economic analysis of the learners for whom the curriculum has been designed and the analysis of the learning environment in which this curriculum is presented. The synthesis, which will link the sections together, and conclusion will draw the threads together. In providing this analysis it is imperative to provide a definition of what a curriculum is. In the broader sense, a curriculum is the offering of socially valued knowledge, skills and attitudes made available to learners through a variety of programmes. Forquin (1995) cited in Swarts (1996:23) has the following to say about curriculum: ‘The concept of curriculum, indeed, implies taking into consideration the whole of the course of studies and not just one aspect or one stage considered separately’. In examining official educational documents, especially curricular documents written after independence, there are signs of continuing traditional emphasis however, this is expected, as Fullan (1991) contends that change does not take place just because it has been decreed and written down in the book of reforms. Change takes time to work its way in.

This study sought to investigate teacher, learner and parental perceptions and understanding of a whole school approach in environmental education (EE). There were five schools piloting environmental education through a whole school development approach in the Oshana Region of Namibia. The study was conducted in two rural schools in the Oshana Region. The schools were selected because they participated and piloted the infusion of environmental education themes in the curriculum through the whole school approach during the Supporting Environmental Education in Namibia (SEEN) project piloting phase from 2001 to 2005. This study was shaped and informed by international theories, practices and perspectives of a whole school approach as cited in chapter two of this study. In other words a whole school approach has provided theoretical background information and a practical framework on which this study was built. A whole school approach provides a theoretical understanding of how the school community, the biophysical environment, as well as the curriculum can benefit from EE projects through a whole school development approach. The whole school approach, discussed in this study, provides an opportunity to see the link between the whole school approach and ESD in order to understand the role a whole school approach plays in the implementation of ESD in Namibia. The research took the form of an interpretive case study focusing on a study of two teachers, two learners, and two members of the community. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews, document analysis and site observations. This study was undertaken two years later after the Supporting Environmental Education Namibia (SEEN) pilot project phased out. The findings indicate that despite the training and support received by the schools during the operation of the Supporting Environmental Education Namibia (SEEN) pilot project, schools are still experiencing problems with the application of a whole school approach. The findings revealed that the curriculum should provide guidelines and examples to support teachers on how to integrate environmental education in the teaching and learning process. The results of the study indicate that teachers, learners and members of the community have a limited understanding about how a whole school development approach in environmental education is linked to Education Sustainable Development (ESD) and the four dimensions of the environment.

This study involved an issues-based approach to curriculum contextualisation in the context of the Eco-Schools programme in Kenya. It adopted a two-phase design using interpretivist and socially critical research orientations. In this study, research is represented as a process which is socially constructed within a particular theoretical, contextual, social and historical context by unfolding the thesis to illuminate how the phases are closely woven into each other. The first phase used the survey method for a contextual review of existing approaches and views relating to environmental education in the formal education sector. The survey aimed to develop a deeper understanding of environmental education as currently practiced in Kenya and to unravel the complexities surrounding it. It involved about two hundred and six primary school teachers and a critical review of a set of resource materials used in Kenyan Primary Schools. It revealed that some aspects of environmental education practice and the prevailing technocratic view of curriculum in Kenyan primary schools potentially limit possibilities for issues-based approaches to curriculum contextualisation. The action research process in four case study schools in Nyanza province of Kenya represent an attempt to address issues in context through socially critical environmental education. Participant observations, workshops and document analysis revealed that, contextualised conceptions of the terms ‘environment’ and ‘environmental education’ that resulted from a process of deliberation of meaning by teachers in relation to their contexts and practices served to set perspective for the action research process. Further, the planning phase which involved environmental auditing to identify issues of concern, prioritization of actions, issues to address, and action planning to guide implementation was critical in setting the agenda of the action research process in each of the case study schools. Integration and infusion of local issues of concern into curriculum planning further enriched processes of curriculum contextualisation, making them relevant to local contexts by addressing real issues through appropriate pedagogical approaches in auditing, investigation and research, communicating and interpreting results, reflecting on investigations and taking action. The action research process further enhanced cooperation and partnership between the case study schools and surrounding communities with mutual benefits. The research report demonstrates that despite the limitations posed by the technocratic orientation of the Kenyan curriculum, it is possible to address real environmental issues, risks and associated sustainable development challenges in context through issues-based approaches to curriculum contextualisation in the context of the Eco-Schools programme.

Thesis (MA)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: At independence, Namibia chose English as its official language and therefore its language of learning and teaching (LOLT). Since then, government documents and other literature have revealed the poor performance of learners and falling of standards of teaching (Benjamin 2004:25). It seems that teachers are facing several challenges when using English as an LOLT in the classroom. This study therefore investigates the challenges faced by teachers in northern Namibia when using ELF as a LOLT, as well as how teachers overcome these challenges. In this regard, structured, one-on-one interviews were conducted with six Oshiwambo-speaking teachers at a specific homogenous secondary school in the Omusati region of northern Namibia. The findings of this study suggest that teachers believe that the learners’ sole advantage of using ELF as the LOLT is that it may benefit them if they further their studies abroad, as possessing knowledge of English would enable them to communicate with people from different countries. Another main finding, in terms of how teachers overcome the challenges posed by using ELF as the LOLT, is that teachers often resort to code-switching to ensure that their students understand the concepts they are being taught. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Met die onafhanklikheidswording het Namibië Engels as amptelike taal gekies en gevolglik ook as die taal van onderrig en leer (LOLT). Sedertdien het staatsdokumente en ander literatuur getoon hoe swak leerders presteer en dat daar ‘n daling in onderrigstandaarde is (Benjamin 2004: 25). Dit blyk dat onderwysers verskeie uitdagings met die gebruik van Engels as LOLT in die klaskamer in die gesig staar. Hierdie studie ondersoek dus hierdie uitdagings van onderwysers in die noorde van Namibië wanneer hulle Engels as ‘n lingua franca (ELF) as die LOLT moet gebruik, sowel as hoe onderwysers hierdie uitdagings oorkom. In hierdie opsig is gestrukureerde individuele onderhoude met ses Oshiwambosprekende onderwysers gevoer by ‘n spesifieke homogene sekondere skool in die Omusati omgewing in Noord-Namibië. Die bevindinge van hierdie studie dui aan dat onderwysers glo dat leerders wat ELF as LOLT gebruik net voordeel daaruit sal trek indien hulle hul studies in die buiteland sou voortsit omdat kennis van Engels hulle instaat sou stel om met mense van verskillende lande te kommunikeer. Nog ‘n belangrike bevinding is dat onderwysers heel dikwels van kodewisseling gebruikmaak om te verseker dat hulle studente die terme wat aangeleer word wel verstaan.

This portfolio discusses various important aspects that affect teacher education. The portfolio has become an important tool for assessment in education. The research component of the masters' course that I attended is reflected in this portfolio. To complete this course several aspects were covered. The educational reform process in the Namibian context requires the use of appropriate resources, an environment conducive to learning, active involvement of the learners and teachers who should have a better understanding of the system adopted. Teacher educators are seen as important in transforming Namibian education in the sense of breaking the cycle of authoritarianism and inequities that existed in schooling prior to independence in 1990, and that still continue to exist in many Namibian schools today. Much effort has been devoted to creating conditions in colleges of education, where future teachers experience the same kind of teaching and learning that is envisioned for schools in the country. To accomplish this a great deal of effort has been devoted to the professional development of teacher educators. This masters' course was initiated to address the shortcomings of teacher education in Namibia. The preparation of teacher educators to be willing and able to prepare teachers in a manner that is consistent with national educational goals has been a neglected element of educational reform in Third World countries (Taylor and Peacock, 1997). Nahas Angula defines teachers as critical agents in creating the reform in relation to several broad principals: access, equity, quality, and democracy. As Ebbutt and Elliot (1998) point out, these principles are defined in very broad terms and provide the opportunity for teachers, teacher educators, and administrators to translate the ideals in particular contexts through practical reflection and deliberation. The Namibian reforms are underpinned by democratic ideals, the intention being to develop broad participation in defining and developing the reform tenets in specific contexts. In Namibia it has been recognized that qualitative changes in classroom practice will only occur when teachers understand them and accept them as their own. It is also recognized that because many teachers have been educated under the authoritarian system of the past, conceptual changes are needed in the minds of the teachers for the reforms to be successful. These include a shift from the belief of teachers as civil servants who are merely to "deliver" a curriculum dictated from above, to one of teachers as reflective professionals who play important roles in interpreting and defining the reforms and in giving meaning to such values as learner-centered and democratic education, continuous assessment, and critical inquiry (Swarts 1998). In the case of Namibia, we have a situation where there is an attempt to fundamentally transform an authoritarian education system that emphasized repetition and rote learning of received knowledge to one where learners are active participants in the learning process and where the curriculum is relevant to and respectful of different cultural traditions and communities. The learner-centered philosophy that guides post-independence educational reforms in Namibia calls for breaking down the authoritarian teacher-student relationships of the past. It encourages teachers to begin instruction by gaining an understanding of their learners' existing knowledge, skills, and understandings and to actively involve them in the learning process toward the goal of preparing citizens for a democratic society. The background above will help the readers to understand the sections covered in this portfolio. In the first part, the portfolio looks at a case study that analyses pre- and post-independence teacher education in Namibia. This study focuses on the Rundu College of Education and investigates the implementation of the Basic Education Teacher Diploma (BETD) Broad Curriculum in relation to the History syllabus. This paper presents information on what led to post-independence teacher education reforms in Namibia and why the reform was necessary. The BETD Broad Curriculum advocates the principles underpinning teacher education reforms in Namibia. The analysis looks at whether the History syllabus applies the principles of teacher education reform in relation to practice in the classroom. This paper addresses the historical background of a History curriculum, which shows the importance of a contextual understanding of the theoretical framework. The second paper looks at the theories underpinning the pre- and post-independence curriculum and the reform process in Namibia, how each theory views knowledge and why a decision was taken to apply them. The third paper is a literature review that links the epistemological ideals of reform to the classroom situation. This paper provides the basis for a small-scale empirical research. The research proposal included in the portfolio emerged from the earlier studies and identifies a key area for investigation within the domain of my particular area of teaching. The identified research problem investigated is presented in the final paper of the portfolio. These research findings can be applied to different situations in different schools. The portfolio is completed by the presentation of a short reflection of the role of the portfolio in this masters' course.

1. The contextual analysis and curriculum evaluation. This paper ... aims to investigate the Upper Primary Education Curriculum with specific emphasis on the subject syllabus for English Grades 5- 7. The paper shall attempt to look at the rationale, goals and aims as well as the learning content located in this subject curriculum. It will further investigate the sociohistoric and economic context in which this curriculum has been designed; the learners for whom the curriculum is designed and the learning environment in which the curriculum is presented. 2. The epistemological foundation of the reform process. This paper attempts to explore the theory of knowledge that underpins the practices of behaviourism and constructivism. 3. The literature review. The purpose of this literature review is to examine the effect of methodology in teaching English as a second language in primary schools. It is to find out the ways of teaching English that can produce good results. It is also to find the styles of teaching English as a second language that make some teachers less effective so that such teaching styles can be discouraged. When English was introduced as the medium of instruction in Namibian schools, primary school teachers were retrained and upgraded. 4. The research proposal. The aim of the proposed study is to explore a selection of learners' perceptions of ESL classroom teaching and learning activities. Through this it is hoped to cause greater illumination on the nature of learning and teaching English. 5. The empirical study (research paper). This interpretative case study hoped to find out from learners themselves about their perceptions of ESL classroom teaching and learning activities. A variety of research tools were used, including questionnaires, interviews, observations, interactive workshops and focus group discussions, all of which provided a rich source of data for interpretation. The research findings of this study clearly indicated that there is a mismatch between the teachers and learners' perceptions about the language skills and tasks encountered in the classrooms. From what was gained from the participants in this research, tentative suggestions are made.

What is the portfolio and what are its purposes? I must define the portfolio as a summative document bearing the valuable experiences learned in a particular course of study. In this context, portfolio can be viewed as a selective entity that represents the level of learning, in terms of academic/professional growth and development, attained in one's participation in a particular course of study such as this Master one I have been attending. Portfolio can be educationally utilized to reflect and evaluate one's learning. As one goes throughout paging, one locates the level of learning achieved in terms of anticipated knowledge, understanding, and experiences, skills and attitudes or overly learning competencies. The level of development one has gone through in attempts to respond to the expected learning outcomes surface out more easily. And if further learning be conducted, the portfolio must as well shows the ways ahead. With these few words, I have attempted to present the portfolio as a useful tool that represents the level of advancement attained in learning. This portfolio comprises of my educational partaking in Rhodes University's master program (theory and practice, in particular what and how I have gained from that program participation. It may also present what I cold not learn. The arrangement of the portfolio contents assumes a progressive procession, being structured in terms of the assignments taken. There are five pieces of assignments in this research portfolio. The first assignment is a contextual analysis of the Education Theory and Practice (ETP) curriculum of our current teacher education program, namely Basic Education Teachers' Diploma. It looks at the theoretical framework that informs and shapes everyday teaching and learning practices, particularly the degree to which we have been able to implement the theoretical perspectives into operational practices. To this is how our college is equipped with the technologies necessary for possible practices of the curriculum. The other emphasis focuses at the historical backgrounds that necessitated the undertaking of the BETD as an instrument of reforming and transforming the basic education rightly at the independence. The other area is on the question of how the curriculum or program intakers, the entering students, have been prepared to consume the curriculum program. Since the program has been as well designed to address and meet the four major national goals of education for all, another part has been focused on these goals so far as to locate the degree of attainment. The second assignment is about contrasting and comparing the two main held dominant worldwide views of knowledge- namely behaviorism and constructivism. Each branch of knowledge is looked at firstly with particular attentions paid to its own individual versions of knowledge and its development and acquisition. The other focuses examine which base seems to offer better explanations of what knowledge is and how it can best be constructed and acquired in any educational setting. The third assignment is that of literature review. I have chosen action as an area that I would be interested in exploring much further. Action research is what eventually became a part of my research proposal in which I would research on how our college students carry out their action research projects to examine their own classroom makings. It has been therefore important to read what others have written about this field and locate the lessons that can be illuminated on our own curriculum context. The literature review paves the way to the research proposal. The research proposal or a research plan as I would often call it, sets the context, purpose, theoretical position and information gathering methods under which the research process will take place. The research proposal has thus been the navigating compass despite the that realities as the practical journey itself took off some deviation unavoidably came in as necessitated by the underlying research process itself. The research proposal finally accumulates into the sought, the final assignment. A critical view illustrates that this piece is actually another contextual inquiry like the first work only that this is viewing our supposed curriculum outcomes: our students, our products and how they have been equipped to carry out the research. Their research, with its successes and shortcomings, I have concluded, firmly serves to reflect the kind of education delivered from our teacher colleges. The portfolio contents also demonstrate the course orientation: focusing on one's professional field. At end, I see this research portfolio as myself, a mirror that reflects my academic and professional participation in Rhodes University's world and its vision and mission expresses in the theme of where leaders learn. It thus represents the personal, academic and development accomplished throughout this Masters' course. In the other way around, I see it as reflecting what Rhodes can offer as from when the prestigious Augustana College, my American institution, has prepared after its boundaries.

Education reform in Namibia brought about changes to mathematics education since independence. This has put pressure on the government to provide both resources and qualified mathematics teachers to help drive the reform process in all teaching and learning activities. This included availing reliable and valid national examination results which is a measure of whether the newly introduced programmes are working or not. For the Ministry of Education this meant training more mathematics teachers and ensuring that competent and reliable teachers are appointed for marking national examination every year. The teachers' training process however, has not been going as fast as it was expected and year after year the Directorate of National Examinations and Assessment experienced problems in obtaining competent teachers for the marking of national examination. The purpose of the study was to understand the differences in marking performances of the JSC mathematics national examination markers. Particularly the study was to create a clear and detailed understanding of different factors that could possibly affect the marking performance of different markers. In addition, the study was to investigate the effect the mathematical content knowledge of the markers has on their marking performance. It was evident from the findings that their mathematical content knowledge had influenced their marking performance. Moreover the research findings also gave a strong indication that there are other factors that were influencing the markers marking performance. These were the markers' knowledge of the assessment and marking process, the markers' marking experience, the markers' socioeconomic background. The difference in their moderators' input has emerged as the other factors that have influenced their performance in marking and consequently contributed to the differences in their marking performances.

This contextual analysis is concerned with the study of the Basic Education Teacher's Diploma In-service Curriculum. It is based on the following assumptions: firstly, that the BETD (Inset and Preset) represents the Namibian Educational Reform in the realm of Teacher Education. Secondly, it is assumed that the BETD as a vehicle for reform in Teacher Education should yield teachers who are capable of change and development. Based on the above-mentioned assumptions, this analysis examines this Teacher Education course/programme against some criteria pertinent to its philosophy. A critical analysis of its curriculum in terms of some core subjects, as well as its practical implementation, will form the basis of this scrutiny. Secondary to the above, this analysis also intends to reflect this sociohistoric and economic context in which the BETD has been designed. An underlying motive in this analysis is to study the dynamics between the philosophy, which represents the heart and intention of the Namibian educational reform on the one hand and implementation which in turn delivers the end product or final outcome of the course on the other hand. This analysis should also fit into the current debate between conservatives who claim that the BETD lacks content and is therefore inferior, and those who claim that the course adequately prepares teachers for the needs of Basic Education.

Before the Republic of Namibia achieved independence in 1990, Bantu Education was the prevailing structure used to promote the social, economic, and political ethos of apartheid through a teacher-centered education system. After 1990, Namibia underwent a major restructuring of education. Learner-centered education was introduced as an inclusive and participatory approach to achieve the reform goals. One of the aims was to review the existing Language policy and to promote mother tongue teaching, since it is through language we internalize our experience and construct our own understanding. In other words, our cognitive, emotional and social development is dependent on language. In this case study, the understanding and implementation of a learner-centered approach in Namibia were investigated in order to gain insights about how the participating education officer, responsible for Oshindonga understands and assists teachers to implement this approach. At the same time, this study aimed at investigating Grade 11 teachers‟ understanding and implementation of LCE in their classrooms. The qualitative methodology in this case study used semi-structured interviews, classroom observations and document analysis for data collection. The data revealed that there are a number of misconceptions. In some cases, what teachers say is not what they do. The findings suggest that teachers, while attempting to implement a learner-centered approach, are not confident about its underlying theory, and therefore the degree of implementation depends on how the teachers used their understanding of that theory in their practice within these conceptual constraints. The study highlights particular challenges and problems that hinder the effective implementation of learner-centered education.