This dissertation examines ancient anchoring practice in the Mediterranean through ca. 1500 CE, as well as the history and technological developments of iron anchors, which are among the most important tools inherited from the ancient world. The methodology employed is holistic in synthesizing archaeological finds, textual, and iconographic evidence, and includes statistical and geographical analysis based on a substantial catalogue of ancient anchor finds. An experimental project is also included where anchor reconstructions were used in the sea and their utility tested. Mooring is one of the least studied aspects of everyday life for the people of the ancient Mediterranean. It has been elucidated that in most circumstances beaching would not have been a practical option, even for warships and the smallest cargo vessels. Rather, vessels were equipped with specialized gear for mooring off or near undeveloped shores. This included ship's boats enabling access to the shore. Lower draft vessels, particularly galleys, could approach unbuilt shores and employ mooring stakes and cables, and the ship's landing-ladder would be deployed into shallow water. Where available, however, ships would benefit from built quays which facilitated goods transport. The iron stock-anchor displays the greatest longevity of any anchoring tool, evinced as early as the 5th c. BCE, and appears to have achieved dominance over wooden types by the 3rd c. CE. From its conception the iron-stock anchor undergoes a broad range of gradual changes to its form and features. The earliest known finds take a 'V' form in the bulk-arms and gradually develop through rounded to 'T' and 'Y' forms in the Byzantine Period. The stocks evolve from removable iron types, to permanent forms entirely of wood. Reintroduction of upward-oriented arm designs from northern Europe around the 13th c. CE, and incorporation of hydraulic mechanized smithing developments, heralded a revolution of anchoring technology. Larger, stronger and more efficient anchors were being produced to standardized dimensions and quality, promoting larger ships, and ultimately resulting in novel characteristics of navigation.

This thesis examines the stone-carved architectural spiral fluted column from second-millennium B.C. Mesopotamia to the fourth-century A.D. Roman Empire, and establishes its relationship to technological devices such as water screws, screw presses, and other machines. Evidence from literary sources and archaeological records shows the increasing architectural use of the helical spiral during that time, particularly in structures such as theatres, nymphaea, colonnades and decorative gateways. The use of spiral designs on coins, sarcophagi, pottery and wall paintings is also discussed. The thesis presents: the mathematics of the spiral as applied in Mesopotamian architecture; spiral use in the Aegean Bronze and Iron Ages and the Greek and Roman worlds; and its use in technology and mechanical devices, specifically those of Archimedes and Hero. The conclusion summarises the evidence, demonstrating that the construction of the spiral fluted column evolved from that of the Archimedean water screw. / Graduate / 2015-08-20 / 0324 / 0346 / 0579 / ghenders@uvic.ca

This thesis examines the stone-carved architectural spiral fluted column from second-millennium B.C. Mesopotamia to the fourth-century A.D. Roman Empire, and establishes its relationship to technological devices such as water screws, screw presses, and other machines. Evidence from literary sources and archaeological records shows the increasing architectural use of the helical spiral during that time, particularly in structures such as theatres, nymphaea, colonnades and decorative gateways. The use of spiral designs on coins, sarcophagi, pottery and wall paintings is also discussed. The thesis presents: the mathematics of the spiral as applied in Mesopotamian architecture; spiral use in the Aegean Bronze and Iron Ages and the Greek and Roman worlds; and its use in technology and mechanical devices, specifically those of Archimedes and Hero. The conclusion summarises the evidence, demonstrating that the construction of the spiral fluted column evolved from that of the Archimedean water screw. / Graduate / 2018-08-20 / 0324 / 0346 / 0579 / ghenders@uvic.ca