Com base nos pressupostos teórico-metodológicos variacionistas (LABOV, 2006 [1966]; 2008 [1972]; 1999; 2001; 2010) e em alguns conceitos caros à terceira onda (ECKERT, 2012) da Sociolinguística, este trabalho objetiva estudar a comunidade de fala sul-mineira de Itanhandu. Itanhandu se localiza em uma região de tríplice divisa entre os estados de Minas Gerais, São Paulo e Rio de Janeiro. Além dessa posição geográfica singular, os itanhanduenses revelam possuir com as capitais fluminense e paulista uma relação de identificação maior do que possuem com a própria capital de seu estado, o que parece influenciar o falar local, sobretudo na realização de (-r). O estudo de Itanhandu iniciou-se com uma coleta de 36 entrevistas sociolinguísticas na cidade, que possibilitaram constatar a presença não só de retroflexos, pronúncia considerada a mais prototípica na comunidade, mas também de tepes e fricativos, variantes comumente associadas às capitais de São Paulo e do Rio de Janeiro, respectivamente. Diante da verificação da ocorrência de tais variantes em Itanhandu, aventou-se a hipótese de que elas estariam correlacionadas aos dois grupos de identificação presentes na cidade, um que se compõe de itanhanduenses que gostam de morar lá e não desejam se mudar ou que tenham saído dela, mas desejam voltar; e outro que se define por itanhanduenses que desejam tentar a vida fora de Itanhandu ou que já se mudaram e não desejam retornar. Entretanto, a análise quantitativa dos dados mostra que as variantes não prototípicas em Itanhandu estão mais ligadas ao tempo de permanência que os itanhanduenses passaram fora de sua cidade natal, ou seja, pronúncias tepes e fricativas são menos correlatos de uma questão identitária e mais de um fenômeno que se dá naturalmente em um processo de acomodação linguística (GILES, 1973) pelo qual passam os itanhanduenses que moram em outras cidades, principalmente localizadas nos estados de São Paulo e Rio de Janeiro. Além disso, este trabalho também investiga a existência de graus de retroflexão em Itanhandu. Retroflexos fortes, ou seja, mais duradouros e intensos, opõem-se a retroflexos fracos, ou melhor, mais curtos e com intensidade reduzida. A análise quantitativa dos dados mostra que tal variação correlaciona-se, principalmente, a variáveis linguísticas: são os grupos de fatores Classe Morfológica da Palavra com (-r) e Frequência do Item Lexical com (-r) os que mais explicam a existência de tal fenômeno em Itanhandu. Por fim, esta dissertação mostra a complexidade da identidade itanhanduense, composta não só de relações sociais, econômicas e linguísticas estabelecidas com cidades paulistas e fluminenses, mas também a partir das vivências individuais dos itanhanduenses, das cidades em que eles já moraram, da forma com que se relacionam com Itanhandu e com os itanhanduenses, das posturas que assumem diante de fatos da vida cotidiana e, principalmente, diante de fatos da realidade linguística da comunidade de fala em que se inserem. / Based on variationist theory and methods (LABOV, 2006 [1966]; 2008 [1972]; 1999; 2001; 2010), including third wave sociolinguistics (ECKERT, 2012), this masters thesis focuses Itanhandu, a town in Southern Minas Gerais, located near the border between Minas Gerais and São Paulo e Rio de Janeiro. Itanhanduenses tend to identify themselves with the capitais of these two states more than with Belo Horizonte, the capital of Minas Gerais. Such identification has an influence in their local speech, especially when it comes to variable (-r). In a sample of 36 sociolinguistic interviews collected in Itanhandu, there are fricative and tap ocurrences of (-r), aside from the retroflex which is prototypical in the community. The fricative and tap variants are commonly associated with the capitals São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, respectively. The main initial hypothesis is that this case of variation correlates with how Itanhanduenses identify themselves: those who like to live in Itanhandu and do not wish to move to another city (and those who have moved out but would like to return to Itanhandu); and those who would like to leave their birth town (including those who live somewhere else and would not like to move back to Itanhandu). The quantitative analyses suggest that fricative and tap occurrences of (-r) are less correlated to these subgroups, and more strongly associated with how long a period Itanhanduenses spend outside of their birth town. There seems to be a process of accomodation (GILES, 1973) in the speech of those Itanhanduenses who have lived in other cities, especially in the states of São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. This thesis also looks into degrees of (-r) retroflexion. Strong retroflex (lengthier and more intense) and weak retroflex (shorter and less intense) are analyzed as a variable, which correlates more strongly to linguistic factors: Word Class and Word Frequency. This thesis shows that the Itanhanduense identity is composed not just by social, economic and linguistic relations to São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro, but also by individual experiences, both in Itanhandu itself and in other cities. Such experiences are revealed in stances taken during the sociolinguistic interviews, in relation to facts of their day-to-day life, including their linguistic experiences.

Ancient harbour sediment archives can provide long-term records of changes in coastal palaeoenvironments, settlement history, and anthropogenic impacts on coastal systems. In this study, multi-proxy geoarchaeological investigations were conducted at two long-occupied coastal archaeological sites (Liman Tepe-Clazomenae, western Anatolia, Turkey; Lechaion, northeast Peloponnese, Greece) to document coastal palaeoenvironmental change and harbour basin evolution. Multi-proxy core analyses (micropalaeontology, sedimentary facies) were integrated with geophysical mapping and micro-XRF core scanning (chemofacies) to investigate harbour sediment archives and to reconstruct coastal palaeoenvironments. At Liman Tepe-Clazomenae, the Neolithic to Early Bronze Age (ca. 6700-3000 BCE) coastal palaeogeography was reconstructed using a large subsurface database (>20 cores, ~600-line km geophysical surveys) to determine palaeoshoreline positions and potential locations of prehistoric proto-harbour basins. Geophysical mapping revealed a submerged palaeolandscape with relict river channels and shorelines recording inundation of a middle Neolithic coastal plain. A transgressive systems tract was identified by marine foreshore and shoreface deposits overlying paleosol and lagoonal sediments. Shoreline positions were estimated by back-strip analysis of the de-compacted sediment thickness from the marine transgressive surface. During the middle Neolithic (ca. 6700 BCE) the shoreline was >500 m seaward of the modern shore and transgressed to its maximum extent (~1 km inland) during the Chalcolithic (ca. 4000 BCE). After 4000 BCE, sea level decelerated and the coastline prograded under a high-stand systems tract by barrier accretion. The transition from a Late Bronze Age (LBA) proto-harbour to Iron Age semi-enclosed harbour basin was recorded by shifts in geochemical proxies (Ti/Ca, Si, Br), foraminifera, and sedimentary facies. Shifts in Ti/Ca record potential signals of land clearance and evidence for a 300-year LBA drought period (“Greek Dark Age”). Geophysical mapping of Clazomenae’s Archaic (ca. 7th-6th c. BCE) harbour basin revealed two rubble-constructed breakwater structures and a submerged headland separating east and west basins. Linear magnetic anomalies within the eastern mole indicate a buried (LBA?) pier or breakwater within the rubble mass. At Lechaion, a multi-proxy analysis was conducted on seven cores to determine the timing and causes of the Roman harbour decline and abandonment. Coring identified a basin-wide paraconformity surface separating harbour sediments and overlying marl deposits, which records a rapid transition from a marine-estuarine to restricted evaporitic lake environment. Rapid basin restriction was indicated by a decrease in terrigenous elements (Si, Ti, K, Fe), increased Sr and δ18O, and a shift from marine-estuarine to marsh-freshwater taxa. The event records the 6th c. CE tectonic uplift and destruction of the harbour basin, linked with uplift on the nearby Perachora Peninsula (~1.1 m) during destructive earthquakes in 524 and 551/552 CE. No evidence was found for tsunami events proposed in previous work. This study has documented the development, evolution, and abandonment of harbour basins on two tectonically active coastlines with complex relative sea level histories. Palaeogeographic mapping at Liman Tepe has identified a drowned palaeolandscape with areas of high archaeological potential for submerged prehistoric sites and proto-harbour anchorage areas. At Lechaion, multi-proxy analysis has resolved a long-standing debate, demonstrating that the harbour basin decline in the 6th c. CE was caused by coastal tectonic uplift and rapid basin restriction. / Dissertation / Doctor of Science (PhD)

The focus of this thesis is on the most commonly used types of stone, the methods of quarrying stone, stone working, the tools developed and used for that purpose, and the ways in which stone was transported and hoisted into place. This is starting from the earliest times in which large temples or buildings were constructed, namely the Neolithic, up till the time of the Roman Empire. Besides being a kind of compendium of most aspects of stone working, which could be found, also attention is given to the ideal conditions under which the construction of a large temple or monument could take place. The framework, which is developed from the description of the construction of Solomon’s Temple in Jerusalem in I Kings 5 and I Chronicles 28, is used to analyse the construction of a number of other temples in different times, places and settings, and with the use of different materials, to test if the framework is applicable in all these situations. Moreover, also other aspects of stone working, such as mosaics and the manufacturing of stone vessels in Jerusalem are described and analysed as to their origins and uses. The intention is to give an overview of the many ways in which stone has been used, so that the reader can get an idea of how large temples and monuments were built and to gain an understanding of what kind of technical know-how and ingenuity existed in antiquity. / Religious Studies and Arabic / D. Phil. (Religious Studies (Biblical Archaeology))