Pneumatic tire friction on ice is an under-researched area of tire mechanics. This study covers the design and analysis of a series of pneumatic tire tests on a flat-level ice road surface. The terramechanics rig of the Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Lab (AVDL) is a single-wheel test rig that allows for the experimental analysis of the forces and moments on a tire, providing directly the data for the drawbar pull of said tire, thus supporting the calculation of friction based on this data. This indoor testing apparatus allows for some degree of replication by helping to maintain test conditions and by imposing a desired tire slip; the normal load, camber angle, toe angle, and other testing configurations can also be pre-set, as required. Methods of and issues related to controlling the production of ice and maintaining the conditions of numerous factors for each trial run were also documented. The AVDL terramechanics rig allowed for the collection of data from tests that varied the tire tread, tire inflation pressure, normal load on the wheel, and the slip ratio of the moving tire. This empirical data was then analyzed through the statistical analysis program JMP 8 in order to determine which factors (or combination of factors) significantly influence pneumatic tire friction on ice. The analysis verified that the slip ratio had a significant effect on the observed coefficient of friction, which decreased as the slip ratio increased. The combinations of the slip ratio and inflation pressure and the slip ratio and tire setup also had a significant effect on the observed coefficient of friction. The tests appear to have validated the theory that the drawbar pull and the traction was higher for the tire with tread. / Master of Science

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / In this thesis, an explicit time integration code which integrates multibody dynamics (MBD) and the discrete element method (DEM) is validated using three previously published steady-state physical experiments for non-cohesive sand-type material, namely: shear-cell for measuring shear stress versus normal stress; penetroplate pressure-sinkage test; and wheel drawbar pull-torque-slip test. The test results are used to calibrate the material properties of the DEM soft soil model and validate the coupled MBD-DEM code. All three tests are important because each test measures specific mechanical characteristics of the soil under various loading conditions. Shear strength of the soil as a function of normal load help to understand shearing of the soil under a vehicle wheel contact patch causing loss of traction. Penetroplate pressure-sinkage test is used to calibrate and validate friction and shear strength characteristics of the soil. Finally the rigid wheel-soil interaction test is used to predict drawbar pull force and wheel torque vs. slip percentage and normal stress for a rigid wheel. Wheel-Soil interaction test is important because it plays the role of ultimate validation of the soil model tuned in the previous two experiments and also shows how the soil model behaves in vehicle mobility applications. All the aforementioned tests were modeled in the multibody dynamics software using rigid bodies and various joints and actuators. The sand-type material is modeled using discrete cubical particles. A penalty technique is used to impose normal contact constraints (including particle-particle and particle-wall contact). An asperity-based friction model is used to model friction. A Cartesian Eulerian grid contact search algorithm is used to allow fast contact detection between particles. A recursive bounding box contact search algorithm enabled fast contact detection between the particles and polygonal body surfaces (such as walls, penetrometer, and wheel). The governing equations of motion are solved along with contact constraint equations using a time-accurate explicit solution procedure. The results show very good agreement between the simulation and the experimental measurements. The model is then demonstrated in a full-scale application of high-speed off-road vehicle mobility on the sand-type soil.

<p>In this thesis, an explicit time integration code which integrates multibody dynamics (MBD) and the discrete element method (DEM) is validated using three previously published steady-state physical experiments for non-cohesive sand-type material, namely: shear-cell for measuring shear stress versus normal stress; penetroplate pressure-sinkage test; and wheel drawbar pull-torque-slip test. The test results are used to calibrate the material properties of the DEM soft soil model and validate the coupled MBD-DEM code. All three tests are important because each test measures specific mechanical characteristics of the soil under various loading conditions. Shear strength of the soil as a function of normal load help to understand shearing of the soil under a vehicle wheel contact patch causing loss of traction. Penetroplate pressure-sinkage test is used to calibrate and validate friction and shear strength characteristics of the soil. Finally the rigid wheel-soil interaction test is used to predict drawbar pull force and wheel torque vs. slip percentage and normal stress for a rigid wheel. Wheel-Soil interaction test is important because it plays the role of ultimate validation of the soil model tuned in the previous two experiments and also shows how the soil model behaves in vehicle mobility applications.</p> <p><br></p> <p>All the aforementioned tests were modeled in the multibody dynamics software using rigid bodies and various joints and actuators. The sand-type material is modeled using discrete cubical particles. A penalty technique is used to impose normal contact constraints (including particle-particle and particle-wall contact). An asperity-based friction model is used to model friction. A Cartesian Eulerian grid contact search algorithm is used to allow fast contact detection between particles. A recursive bounding box contact search algorithm enabled fast contact detection between the particles and polygonal body surfaces (such as walls, penetrometer, and wheel). The governing equations of motion are solved along with contact constraint equations using a time-accurate explicit solution procedure. The results show very good agreement between the simulation and the experimental measurements. The model is then demonstrated in a full-scale application of high-speed off-road vehicle mobility on the sand-type soil.</p>

Mechanical systems always operate under some degree of uncertainty, which can be due to the inherent properties of the system parameters, to random inputs or external excitations, to poorly known parameters in the interface between different systems, or to inadequate knowledge of the dynamic process. Also, mechanical systems are large and highly nonlinear, while the magnitude of uncertainties may be very large. This dissertation addresses the critical need for understanding of the stochastic nature of mechanical system, especially vehicle and terramechanics systems, and need for developing efficient computational tools to model mechanical systems in the presence of parametric and external uncertainty. This dissertation investigates the influence of parametric and external uncertainties on vehicle dynamics and terramechanics. The uncertainties studied include parametric uncertainties, stochastic external excitations, and random variables between vehicle-terrain and vehicle-soil/snow interface. The methodology developed has been illustrated on a stochastic vehicle-terrain interaction model, a stochastic vehicle-soil interaction model, two stochastic tire-snow interaction models, and two stochastic tire-force relations. The uncertainties are quantified and propagated through vehicle and terramechanics systems using a polynomial chaos approach. Algorithms which can predict the geometry of the contact patch and the interfacial forces and torques on the vehicle-soil interfaces are developed. All stochastic models and algorithms are simulated for various scenarios and maneuvers. Numerical results are analyzed from the computational effort point of view, or from the angle of vehicle dynamics and terramechanics, and provide a deeper understanding of the evolution of stochastic vehicle and terramechanics systems. They can also be used in guiding vehicle design and development. This dissertation represents a pioneer study on stochastic vehicle dynamics and terramechanics. Moreover, the methodology developed is not limited to such systems. Any mechanical system with uncertainties can be treated using the polynomial chaos approach presented, considering their specific characteristics. / Ph. D.

The tire is one of the most complex subsystems of the vehicle. It is, however, the least understood of all the components of a car. Without a good tire model, the vehicle simulation handling response will not be realistic, especially for maneuvers that require a combination of braking/traction and cornering. Most of the simplified theoretical developments in tire modeling, however, have been limited to on-road tire models. With the availability of powerful computers, it can be noted that majority of the work done in the development of off-road tire models have mostly been focused on creating better Finite Element, Discrete Element, or Boundary Element models. The research conducted in this study deals with the development of a simplified tire brush-based tire model for on-road simulation, together with a simplified off-road wheel/tire model that has the capability to revert back to on-road trend of behavior on firmer soils. The on-road tire model is developed based on observations and insight of empirical data collected by NHSTA throughout the years, while the off-road tire model is developed based on observations of experimental data and photographic evidence collected by various terramechanics researchers within the last few decades. The tire model was developed to be used in vehicle dynamics simulations for engineering mobility analysis. Vehicle-terrain interaction is a complex phenomena governed by soil mechanical behavior and tire deformation. The theoretical analysis involved in the development of the wheel/ tire model relies on application of existing soil mechanics theories based on strip loads to determine the tangential and radial stresses on the soil-wheel interface. Using theoretical analysis and empirical data, the tire deformation geometry is determined to establish the tractive forces in off-road operation. To illustrate the capabilities of the models developed, a rigid wheel and a flexible tire on deformable terrain is implemented and output of the model was computed for different types of soils; a very loose and deformable sandy terrain and a very firm and cohesive Yolo loam terrain. The behavior of the wheel/tire model on the two types of soil is discussed. The outcome of this work shows results that correlate well with the insight from experimental data collected by various terramechanics researchers throughout the years, which is an indication that the model presented can be used as a subsystem in the modeling of vehicle-terrain interaction to acquire more insight into the coupling between the tire and the terrain. / Ph. D.

This study focuses on conducting a benchmarking analysis for light wheeled and tracked robotic vehicles. Vehicle mobility has long been a key aspect of research for many organizations. According to the Department of Defense vehicle mobility is defined as, "the overall capacity to move from place to place while retaining its ability to perform its primary mission"[1]. Until recently this definition has been applied exclusively to large scale wheeled and tracked vehicles. With new development lightweight ground vehicles designed for military and space exploration applications, the meaning of vehicle mobility must be revised and the tools at our disposal for evaluating mobility must also be expanded. In this context a significant gap in research is present and the main goal of this thesis is to help fill the void in knowledge regarding small robotic vehicle mobility assessment. Another important aspect of any vehicle is energy efficiency. Thus, another aim of this study is to compare the energy needs for a wheeled versus tracked robot, while performing similar tasks. The first stage of the research is a comprehensive review of the state-of-the-art in vehicle mobility assessment. From this review, a mobility assessment criterion for light robots will be developed. The second stage will be outfitting a light robotic vehicle with a sensor suite capable of capturing relevant mobility criteria. The third stage of this study will be an experimental investigation of the mobility capability of the vehicle. Finally the fourth stage will include quantitative and qualitative evaluation of the benchmarking study. / Master of Science

A differential steered, 13.6 kg robot was developed as an intelligent tire testing system and was used to investigate the potential of using piezoelectric film sensors in small tube-type pneumatic tires to characterize tire-ground interaction.<br />One focus of recent research in the tire industry has been on instrumenting tires with sensors to monitor the tire, vehicle, or external environment. On small robots, tire sensors that measure the forces and deflections in the contact patch could be used to improve energy efficiency and/or mobility during a mission.<br />The robot was assembled from a SuperDroid Robots kit and instrumented with low-cost piezoelectric film sensors from Measurement Specialties between the inner tube and the tire.  An unlaminated and a laminated sensor were placed circumferentially along the tread and an unlaminated sensor was placed along the sidewall.  A slip ring transferred the signals from the tire to the robot. There, the signal conditioning circuit extended the time constant of the sensors and filtered electromagnetic interference.  The robot was tested with a controlled power sequence carried out on polished cement, ice, and sand at three power levels, two payload levels, and with two tire sizes.<br />The results suggest that the sensors were capable of detecting normal pressure, deflection, and/or longitudinal strain.  Added payload increased the amplitude of the signals for all sensors.  On the smaller tires, sensors generally recorded a smaller, wider signal on sand compared to cement, indicating the potential to detect contact patch pressure and length.  The signals recorded by the unlaminated sensor along the tread of the smaller tire were lower on ice compared to cement, indicating possible sensitivity to tractive force.  Results were less consistent for the larger tires, possibly due to the large tread pattern. / Master of Science

The primary goal of this work is to design and implement a clutch and brake system on the single tire Terramechanics rig of Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory (AVDL) at Virginia Tech. This test rig was designed and built to study the performance of tires in off-road conditions on surfaces such as soil, sand, and ice. Understanding the braking performance of tires is crucial, especially for terrains like ice, which has a low coefficient of friction. Also, rolling resistance is one of the important aspects affecting the tractive performance of a vehicle and its fuel consumption. Investigating these experimentally will help improve tire models performance. The current configuration of the test rig does not have braking and free rolling capabilities. This study involves modifications on the rig to enable free rolling testing when the clutch is disengaged and to allow braking when the clutch is engaged and the brake applied. The first part of this work involves the design and fabrication of a clutch system that would not require major changes in the setup of the test rig; this includes selecting the appropriate clutch that would meet the torque requirement, the size that would fit in the space available, and the capability to be remotely operated. The test rig's carriage has to be modified in order to fit a pneumatic clutch, its adapter, a new transmission shaft, and the mounting frame for the clutch system. The components of the actuation system consisting of pneumatic lines, the pressure regulator, valves, etc., have to be installed. Easy operation of the clutch from a remote location is enabled through the installation of a solenoid valve. The second part of this work is to design, fabricate, and install a braking system. The main task is to design a customized braking system that satisfies the various physical and functional constraints of the current configuration of the Terramechanics rig. Some other tasks are the design and fabrication of a customized rotor, selection of a suitable caliper, and design and fabrication of a customized mounting bracket for the caliper. A hydraulic actuation system is selected since it is suitable for this configuration and enables remote operation of the brakes. Finally, the rig is upgraded with the assembly of these two systems onto it. / Master of Science / The main goal of this project is to increase the testing capabilities of the single tire Terramechanics rig of Advanced Vehicle Dynamics Laboratory (AVDL) at Virginia Tech. The first task is to enable the rig to have the tire in free rolling condition. This will allow to study rolling resistance of the tire on various off-road conditions such as soil, sand, etc. The free rolling capability will also allow evaluation of the rolling radius of a tire. A customized clutch system was designed to achieve this free rolling requirement. The second task of this project was to implement braking capabilities to the rig. Apart from the traction performance of tires on off-road conditions such as ice, the other parameter is its performance during braking as it is an important factor leading to safety on roads. A customized disc brake system is designed to add braking capabilities to the rig. This free rolling and braking systems has to implemented taking into account the various physical and functional constraints of the rig. The work involves the design and fabrication of various customized components followed by the assembly of these components along with their actuation systems.

This doctoral thesis extends analytical terramechanic modelling for small lightweight mobile robots operating on sandy soil. Previous terramechanic models were designed to capture and predict the mean values of the forces and sinkage that a wheel may experience. However, these models do not capture the fluctuations in the forces and sinkage that were observed in experimental data. The model developed through the course of this research enhances existing terramechanic models by proposing and validating a new pressure-sinkage relationship. The resulting two-dimensional model was validated with a unique high fidelity single-wheel testbed (SWTB) which was installed on a Blohm Planomat 408 computer-numerically controlled creepfeed grinding machine. The new SWTB translates the terrain in the horizontal direction while the drivetrain and wheel support systems are constrained in the horizontal direction but allowed to freely move in the vertical direction. The design of the SWTB allowed for a counterbalance to be installed and, as a result, low normal loads could be examined. The design also took advantage of the grinding machine's high load capacity and precise velocity control. Experiments were carried out with the new SWTB and predictable repeating ridges were found in the track of a smooth rigid wheel operating in sandy soil. To ensure that these ridges were not an artifact of the new SWTB a mobile robot was used to validate the SWTB findings, which it did. The new SWTB is a viable method for investigating fundamental terramechanic issues. A series of experiments at different slip ratios and normal loads were carried out on the SWTB to validate the new pressure-sinkage relationship which explicitly captures and predicts the oscillations about the mean values for the forces and sinkage values for both a smooth wheel and a wheel with grousers. The new pressure-sinkage relationship adds two new dimensionless empirical factors to the well known pressure-sinkage relationship for a rigid wheel. The first new factor accounts for changes in the local density of the terrain around the wheel and the second factor accounts for the effects grousers have on the forces and sinkage.

This thesis aimed to develop deformable a virtual terrain which a vehicle can move in and interact with in a realistic manner. The theory used to calculate how the terrain influences the vehicle is based on terramechanics. The terrain is divided into two separate parts, one for visualization and one for physical collisions. Deformations of the graphical layer is calculated on the GPU using compute shader programming. The result of the thesis include a tech demo with a small landscape where an alternate terrain vehicle can deform the terrain as it moves around. The method for deforming the graphical layer is made in such a way so that the computational time does not increase as the size of the terrain does, making the method applicable to actual games.