MMed (Clinical Microbiology), Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, 2009 / Introduction: The clinical laboratory is required to rapidly identify Staphylococcus aureus as a cause of bacteraemia, and in particular, to detect methicillin resistance amongst bacteraemic isolates, to facilitate prompt initiation of appropriate therapy which may directly impact on patient survival, and to allow for implementation of appropriate infection control measures. Hence, the laboratory needs to choose tests to detect methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) bacteraemia which are rapid, accurate, simple, cost-effective and appropriate for the setting. Primary study objective: To determine the accuracy of four phenotypic susceptibility tests to directly detect MRSA from blood culture specimens (BC) compared with detection of the mecA gene by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) from S. aureus cultured from the same BC. Materials and Methods: BCs were selected from patients with incident, S. aureus bacteraemic episodes at two hospitals, during January and February 2006. S. aureus was identified by standard phenotypic tests, including the presence of a deoxyribonuclease (DNAse). Direct susceptibility tests (DST) were performed (oxacillin (1μg) and cefoxitin (30μg) disk diffusion (DD), oxacillin Etest® (AB bioMérieux) and CHROMagar®-MRSA (CHROMagar® Microbiology)), and repeated on stored cultures. Detection of nuc and mecA genes by PCR confirmed S. aureus and methicillin resistance respectively. The sensitivity and specificity of the DST were calculated with reference to the mecA PCR result, to fulfil the primary study objective. Results: During the two-month study period, 9,400 BC were submitted to the clinical laboratories at the 2 hospitals; S. aureus was isolated from 156 specimens. Of these, 89 BC from 89 incident cases were included in the study, and 65 were subjected to all tests, including PCR. Of the 65 nuc-positive S. aureus isolates from 65 BC, all were positive with the direct DNAse test, and 25 (38%) were mecA positive. Compared to PCR, sensitivity and specificity for the direct oxacillin DD, cefoxitin DD, oxacillin Etest® and CHROMagar®- MRSA was 100% and 90%, 98% and 100%, 100% and 100%, and 96% and 42% respectively. Discussion: In this study, we found that, compared to PCR for the nuc and mecA genes, the combination of a direct DNAse test and oxacillin Etest®, facilitated accurate detection of MRSA bacteraemia. The direct oxacillin Etest® result did not appear to be influenced by a non-standardised inoculum, in contrast to the other direct tests, and provided an oxacillin minimum inhibitory concentration. The direct cefoxitin DD test produced more accurate results than the direct oxacillin DD test, was easier to read and distinguished MRSA from MSSA with zone diameters clustering into more clearly defined susceptibility categories. Although the chromogenic agar performed well when used to identify methicillin resistance amongst cultured S. aureus isolates, it was apparent that this test, read at 24 hours, could not be used reliably as a DST. Since the Etest® is more costly than the DD test; its use should be reserved for BC from patients in “high-risk” hospital areas, e.g. intensive care units. The direct cefoxitin DD could be used for all BC positive for GPCC, and could be used without a direct identification test because of its lower cost; it is further recommended that the direct cefoxitin DD test replace the direct oxacillin test.

No / Recent progress in the development of European standards has allowed the in situ testing of roadside noise barriers. CEN/TS 1793-5 describes a test method using maximum length sequences (MLS) for the characterisation of airborne sound insulation. However, many barriers are tested according to a laboratory standard, EN 1793-2, based on measurements carried out in reverberant chambers and in the case of timber barriers with a relatively low airborne sound insulation it is not clear to what extent the results of the two tests compare. The paper describes the results of tests carried out using both methods. Six samples of timber barrier were compared including single-leaf and double-leaf constructions and single-leaf constructions with an absorptive core. Very good agreement was found especially when account was taken of the valid frequency range in each test method. The results open up the possibility of routinely evaluating the performance of timber barriers at the roadside where build quality can be variable and there are concerns that the acoustic performance may not match that obtained under laboratory test conditions where typically the barrier is more carefully constructed.

A construção civil vem se deparando com uma dualidade que envolve avanços dos métodos de cálculo e tecnologia dos materiais contraposto ao incremento das patologias das construções. Inúmeros levantamentos estatísticos, realizados nos últimos anos, vem demonstrando a grande incidência e repercussão dos processos patológicos atuantes sobre as estruturas de concreto. Vários estudos comprovam que a corrosão de armaduras no concreto é de grande incidência nas construções e, na maioria dos casos, aquele que gera os maiores problemas, tanto em termos de custo como de segurança. Isto explica porque técnicas de medição de resistência à corrosão vêm sendo intensamente estudadas. Todavia, dada a complexidade do assunto e a falta de normalização específica, observa-se a existência de uma grande diversidade de métodos de ensaio, aliada à ausência de uma padronização dos tipos e condições de ensaio. A maioria dos pesquisadores adapta ensaios anteriormente realizados, sem realizar estudos específicos sobre a eficiência e reprodutibilidade dos mesmos. O presente trabalho descreve um estudo realizado com o intuito de avaliar qual os efeitos das variações das condições de ensaio, como tempo de exposição e diferença de potencial induzida, no comportamento de corpos-de-prova de diversas relações água/cimento testados pela metodologia CAIM, um tipo de ensaio acelerado comparativo de corrosão por imersão em solução salina, que já foi empregado em várias pesquisas no LEME. O objetivo é entender como o ensaio reage a variações de método, verificando sua sensibilidade a estas e definindo quais as condições padrão mais adequadas. / The construction community is facing a dualistic reality, where advances in design methods and materials technology are opposed by the increase in pathological problems registered in our structures. Several recent surveys have pointed out that several and important deterioration processes occur in concrete structures. Many studies indicate that reinforcement corrosion is one of the most prevalent and costly between these. That explains why there are so much interest in studying methods to evaluate the corrosion resistance of construction materials. However, given the complexity of the theme and the lack of standardization, a great diversity of methods have evolved, without a proper definition and parameterization of testing conditions. A great number of researches simply adapt methods used by others, not paying enough attention to the evaluation of the efficiency and reproducibility of the test method. This prevents the comparison of results and creates obstacles to sharing data and articulate research efforts. The present work describes a study aimed at evaluating the influence of variations in test conditions, such as exposure time and induce voltage, in the performance of mortar samples with different w/c relations subjected to the CAIM test. This comparative accelerated method, in which mortar samples are immersed on a saline solution and connected to a constant voltage source, has already been used in several studies at LEME. The study analyses how the method respond to variations in test conditions and will help establish the more efficient standard conditions for the test considering the whole range of concrete strengths.

A construção civil vem se deparando com uma dualidade que envolve avanços dos métodos de cálculo e tecnologia dos materiais contraposto ao incremento das patologias das construções. Inúmeros levantamentos estatísticos, realizados nos últimos anos, vem demonstrando a grande incidência e repercussão dos processos patológicos atuantes sobre as estruturas de concreto. Vários estudos comprovam que a corrosão de armaduras no concreto é de grande incidência nas construções e, na maioria dos casos, aquele que gera os maiores problemas, tanto em termos de custo como de segurança. Isto explica porque técnicas de medição de resistência à corrosão vêm sendo intensamente estudadas. Todavia, dada a complexidade do assunto e a falta de normalização específica, observa-se a existência de uma grande diversidade de métodos de ensaio, aliada à ausência de uma padronização dos tipos e condições de ensaio. A maioria dos pesquisadores adapta ensaios anteriormente realizados, sem realizar estudos específicos sobre a eficiência e reprodutibilidade dos mesmos. O presente trabalho descreve um estudo realizado com o intuito de avaliar qual os efeitos das variações das condições de ensaio, como tempo de exposição e diferença de potencial induzida, no comportamento de corpos-de-prova de diversas relações água/cimento testados pela metodologia CAIM, um tipo de ensaio acelerado comparativo de corrosão por imersão em solução salina, que já foi empregado em várias pesquisas no LEME. O objetivo é entender como o ensaio reage a variações de método, verificando sua sensibilidade a estas e definindo quais as condições padrão mais adequadas. / The construction community is facing a dualistic reality, where advances in design methods and materials technology are opposed by the increase in pathological problems registered in our structures. Several recent surveys have pointed out that several and important deterioration processes occur in concrete structures. Many studies indicate that reinforcement corrosion is one of the most prevalent and costly between these. That explains why there are so much interest in studying methods to evaluate the corrosion resistance of construction materials. However, given the complexity of the theme and the lack of standardization, a great diversity of methods have evolved, without a proper definition and parameterization of testing conditions. A great number of researches simply adapt methods used by others, not paying enough attention to the evaluation of the efficiency and reproducibility of the test method. This prevents the comparison of results and creates obstacles to sharing data and articulate research efforts. The present work describes a study aimed at evaluating the influence of variations in test conditions, such as exposure time and induce voltage, in the performance of mortar samples with different w/c relations subjected to the CAIM test. This comparative accelerated method, in which mortar samples are immersed on a saline solution and connected to a constant voltage source, has already been used in several studies at LEME. The study analyses how the method respond to variations in test conditions and will help establish the more efficient standard conditions for the test considering the whole range of concrete strengths.

A construção civil vem se deparando com uma dualidade que envolve avanços dos métodos de cálculo e tecnologia dos materiais contraposto ao incremento das patologias das construções. Inúmeros levantamentos estatísticos, realizados nos últimos anos, vem demonstrando a grande incidência e repercussão dos processos patológicos atuantes sobre as estruturas de concreto. Vários estudos comprovam que a corrosão de armaduras no concreto é de grande incidência nas construções e, na maioria dos casos, aquele que gera os maiores problemas, tanto em termos de custo como de segurança. Isto explica porque técnicas de medição de resistência à corrosão vêm sendo intensamente estudadas. Todavia, dada a complexidade do assunto e a falta de normalização específica, observa-se a existência de uma grande diversidade de métodos de ensaio, aliada à ausência de uma padronização dos tipos e condições de ensaio. A maioria dos pesquisadores adapta ensaios anteriormente realizados, sem realizar estudos específicos sobre a eficiência e reprodutibilidade dos mesmos. O presente trabalho descreve um estudo realizado com o intuito de avaliar qual os efeitos das variações das condições de ensaio, como tempo de exposição e diferença de potencial induzida, no comportamento de corpos-de-prova de diversas relações água/cimento testados pela metodologia CAIM, um tipo de ensaio acelerado comparativo de corrosão por imersão em solução salina, que já foi empregado em várias pesquisas no LEME. O objetivo é entender como o ensaio reage a variações de método, verificando sua sensibilidade a estas e definindo quais as condições padrão mais adequadas. / The construction community is facing a dualistic reality, where advances in design methods and materials technology are opposed by the increase in pathological problems registered in our structures. Several recent surveys have pointed out that several and important deterioration processes occur in concrete structures. Many studies indicate that reinforcement corrosion is one of the most prevalent and costly between these. That explains why there are so much interest in studying methods to evaluate the corrosion resistance of construction materials. However, given the complexity of the theme and the lack of standardization, a great diversity of methods have evolved, without a proper definition and parameterization of testing conditions. A great number of researches simply adapt methods used by others, not paying enough attention to the evaluation of the efficiency and reproducibility of the test method. This prevents the comparison of results and creates obstacles to sharing data and articulate research efforts. The present work describes a study aimed at evaluating the influence of variations in test conditions, such as exposure time and induce voltage, in the performance of mortar samples with different w/c relations subjected to the CAIM test. This comparative accelerated method, in which mortar samples are immersed on a saline solution and connected to a constant voltage source, has already been used in several studies at LEME. The study analyses how the method respond to variations in test conditions and will help establish the more efficient standard conditions for the test considering the whole range of concrete strengths.

Thesis (MEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2015. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: FRC (Fibre-reinforced concrete) has become a common form of secondary and even primary reinforcing in some applications throughout the world. In South Africa, the structural applications are limited primarily to steel fibres while cheaper, lighter and more durable synthetic fibres have been side-lined due to low stiffnesses. The purpose of this research project is to investigate the behaviour of synthetic fibre-reinforced concrete (SynFRC) using fibres which are locally available in South Africa, and to propose a performance-based specification and test method for the use of these fibres. In order to achieve this, single fibre pull-out tests were performed on four locally available polypropylene fibres. It was found that the average bond stresses of the fibres are influenced primarily by the fibre cross sectional shape, longitudinal geometry and surface treatment, and secondarily by the aspect ratio. The W/C ratio had little effect on the single fibre performance of non-treated fibres, but appeared to have a slight effect on the single fibre performance of the surface treated fibre. From the experimental results, the highest fibre bond stress will be generated by using a fibre with an X-shaped cross section, longitudinal crimping and applying a surface treatment to this fibre. It also appears that the bond stress distribution for flat fibres is close to uniform, while the bond stress distribution for non-flat crimped fibres has a high mechanical interlock component at the surface end. Macro-mechanical performance tests were performed by means of the BS EN 14651 (2007) three point beam bending test and the ASTM C1550 (2012) Round Determinate Panel Test (RDPT). These tests were selected following a thorough literature review. The RDPT was found to be more consistent and able to identify trends which the three point beam bending test could not. In addition, the three point beam bending test’s most popular output, the Re,3 value tended to be misleading with varying W/C ratios, and it is recommended that the equivalent flexural tensile strength be used instead if the three point beam bending test is used. The macro-mechanical testing showed that increasing the fibre dosage did increase post-cracking performance. The flat fibres’ performance was significantly better than that of the non-flat fibres, and also increased at a faster rate with increasing fibre dosage. The post-cracking performance decreased with increasing W/C ratios and increasing aggregate sizes. The macro-mechanical performance was inversely proportionate to the single fibre performance. The macro-mechanical performance decreased with increasing fibre bond stress, and increased with increasing equivalent diameter, which equates to fewer fibres in a set volume of fibres. Finally, basic principles were developed from the data. These principles were used to predict the RDPT and three point beam bending test performance parameters based on fibre dosage, single fibre properties (bond stress and equivalent diameter), W/C ratio and aggregate size from the available data. The principles can be further refined with more experimental data. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Vesel-gewapende beton word regoor die wêreld as ’n algemene vorm van sekondêre en selfs primêre versterking gebruik. In Suid-Afrika is die strukturele toepassings hoofsaaklik tot staal vesels beperk, terwyl goedkoper, ligter en meer duursame sintetiese vesels vermy word as gevolg van lae styfhede. Die doel van hierdie navorsingsprojek is om die gedrag van sintetiese-veselversterktebeton (SynFRC) te ondersoek deur gebruik te maak van vesels wat in Suid-Afrika beskikbaar is, en 'n prestasie-gebaseerdespesifikasie en toetsmetode vir die gebruik van sintetiese vesels voor te stel. Enkelveseluittrektoetse is op vier plaaslik beskikbare polipropileen vesels uitgevoer. Daar is gevind dat die gemiddelde verbandspanning van die vesel hoofsaaklik deur die vesel deursnee vorm, lengte meetkunde en oppervlak behandeling beïnvloed word, en tweedens deur die aspek verhouding beïnvloed. Die W/C-verhouding het min effek op die enkelveselprestasie van nie-behandelde vesels, maar het 'n effek op die enkeleveselprestasie van die oppervlak-behandelde vesel gehad. Die eksperimentele resultate wys dat die hoogste vesel verbandspanning deur 'n vesel met 'n X-vormige deursnit, lengte krimping en toepassing van 'n oppervlak behandeling gegenereer sal word. Dit blyk ook dat die verbandspanningverspreiding vir ’n plat vesel naby aan uniform is, terwyl die verbandspanningverspreiding vir ’n nie-plat gekrimpde vesel 'n hoë meganiese grendeling komponent op die oppervlak ente het. Makro-meganiese prestasietoetse is uitgevoer deur middel van die BS EN 14651 (2007) driepuntbalkbuigtoets en die ASTM C1550 (2012) RDPT. Hierdie toetse is ná ’n deeglike literatuuroorsig gekies. Die RDPT is meer konsekwent en is in staat om neigings te identifiseer wat die driepuntbalkbuigingtoets nie kan nie. Daarbenewens, met wisselende W/C verhoudings, is die driepuntbalkbuigtoets se gewildste resultaat, die Re,3-waarde geneig om misleidend te wees. Dit word aanbeveel dat die ekwivalentebuigtreksterkte in plaas van die Re,3-waarde as die drie punt balk buig toets resultaat gebruik word. Die makro-meganiesetoets het getoon dat die verhoging van die veseldosis ’n toename in na-krakingprestasie veroorsaak. Die plat vesels se prestasie was aansienlik beter as die van nie-plat vesels, en het met 'n toenemende veseldosis teen 'n vinniger koers verhoog. Die na-krakingprestasie het met toenemende W/C en die verhoging van die klip grootte afgeneem. Die makro-meganieseprestasie was omgekeerd eweredig aan die enkelveselprestasie. Die makro-meganieseprestasie het met toenemende vesel band stres verminder, en het met 'n toenemende gelykstaande deursnee (wat gelykstaande is aan minder vesel in 'n stel volume van vesel) vergroot. Ten slotte is basiese beginsels uit die data ontwikkel. Hierdie beginsels is gebruik om die RDPT en driepuntbalkbuigtoets prestasieparameters gebaseer op veseldosis, enkelveseleienskappe (verbandspanning en ekwivalentediameter), W/C-verhouding en klip grootte van die beskikbare data te voorspel. Die beginsels kan met meer eksperimentele data verder verfyn word.

The access to clean water is one of the prerequisites for a modern, industrialized society. The amount of water withdrawn for human activities has risen exponentially during the last 100 years. This rise in water use is accompanied by the production of vast quantities of contaminated water. These wastewaters may be contaminated by substances ranging from heavy metals and organic compounds to nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorous. The aggregate effect of combinations of water contaminants can be difficult to predict as different contaminant substances may interact, leading to additive, synergistic or antagonistic toxic effects in a receiving aquatic ecosystem. With increasing water quality legislation, the pressure to characterize and potentially treat contaminated waters increases. Suitable effect-based assessment methods may greatly reduce the costs of both the wastewater characterization process and the water treatment evaluation. The overall aim of this thesis was to show how a combination of ecotoxicity bioassays may be employed in water treatment method development for initial characterization, assessment of treatment requirements and finally treatment evaluation. The wastewaters characterized originated from different activities such as waste management, metal surfacing and explosives destruction. To fully assess the hazard of the waters sampled, a holistic approach using a combination of chemical tests and bioassays was taken. A combination of acute and chronic assays was used to determine mode-of-action effects and apical endpoints in the aquatic environment. The basic battery consisted of the acute Vibrio fischeri test, the chronic algae test using Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata and either the planktonic crustacean Daphnia magna (for aqueous samples) or the meiobenthic crustacean Heterocypris incongruens (for whole-sediment/soil samples).  In addition to the basic test battery, the mode-of-action Salmonella typhimurium test was used to assess genotoxic effects. Results from the water hazard characterization show that ecotoxicological tests contribute to the evaluation of treatment methods for complex wastewaters by assessing the aggregate biological effect of water treatment. The tests may be used as a screening method to indicate where further treatment may be required, even when chemical measurements show a satisfactory reduction of known contaminants. The toxic effect exerted by the assessed waters did not always correlate with measured levels of contaminants or the chemical measures of bioavailability, e.g. leached fraction. The water treatment evaluation showed that the industrial by-product pine bark is an effective adsorbent for capturing metal contaminants from landfill leachates and stormwater. The pine bark column filter had higher zinc removal efficiency than the polonite filter and the combination filter column with pine bark/polonite. In conclusion, a pine bark filter is a suitable alternative to activated carbon for small-scale, decentralized treatment of wastewaters. Furthermore, the ecotoxicity tests were able to detect effects of unknown contaminants and provided unique characterization data, which complemented the information provided by the chemical analyses. / CLEAN / BIOREX

Anthropogenic activities have drastically altered chemical exposure, with traces of synthetic chemicals detected ubiquitously in the environment. Many of these chemicals are thought to perturb endocrine function, leading to declines in reproductive health and fertility, and increases in the incidence of cancer, metabolic disorders and diabetes. There are over 90 million unique chemicals registered under the Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS), of which only 308,000 were subject to inventory and/or regulation, in September 2013. However, as a specific aim of the EU REACH regulations, the UK is obliged to reduce the chemical safety initiatives reliance on in vivo apical endpoints, promoting the development and validation of alternative mechanistic methods. The human health cost of endocrine disrupting chemical (EDC) exposure in the EU, has been estimated at €31 billion per annum. In light of the EU incentives, this study aims to evaluate current in silico and in vitro tools for EDC screening and hazard characterisation; testing the hypothesis that in silico virtual screening accurately predicts in vitro mechanistic assays. Nuclear receptor binding interactions are the current focus of in silico and in vitro tools to predict EDC mechanisms. To the author’s knowledge, no single study has quantitatively assessed the relationship between in silico nuclear receptor binding and in vitro mechanistic assays, in a comprehensive manner. Tripos ® SYBYL software was used to develop 3D-molecular models of nuclear receptor binding domains. The ligand binding pockets of estrogen (ERα and ERβ), androgen (AR), progesterone (PR) and peroxisome proliferator activated (PPARγ) receptors were successfully modelled from X-ray crystal structures. A database of putative-EDC ligands (n= 378), were computationally ‘docked’ to the pseudo-molecular targets, as a virtual screen for nuclear receptor activity. Relative to in vitro assays, the in silico screen demonstrated a sensitivity of 94.5%. The SYBYL Surflex-Dock method surpassed the OECD Toolbox ER-Profiler, DfW and binary classification models, in correctly identifying endocrine active substances (EAS). Aiming to evaluate the current in vitro tools for endocrine MoA, standardised ERα transactivation (HeLa9903), stably transfected AR transactivation (HeLa4-11) assays in addition to novel transiently transfected reporter gene assays, predicted the mechanism and potency of test substances prioritised from the in silico results (n = 10 potential-EDCs and 10 hormone controls). In conclusion, in silico SYBYL molecular modelling and Surflex-Dock virtual screening sensitively predicted the binding of ERα/β, AR, PR and PPARγ potential EDCs, and was identified as a potentially useful regulatory tool, to support EAS hazard identification.

Introduction: Concussions in American Football are of a major concern due to highly reported injury rates. The importance of properly designed helmets have shown effect in reducing the risk of injuries, such as skull fractures. However, they are not as effective in reducing the risk of concussion. Helmets designed are required to pass standards and regulations for them to be allowed within the football leagues. The current test methods evaluate linear impacts, but lack evaluations of oblique impacts which are believed to cause concussions. Several test methods have been suggested, but little is known regarding how they compare. Objective: The purpose of this study was to compare three different test methods for evaluating helmet performance, utilizing finite element simulation. Three different helmet models were used for comparison, evaluating head kinematics. The helmet models were additionally ranked from best to worst based on their performances. Method: Three test methods, linear impactor, 45° angled linear impactor, and a drop test onto a 45° angled plate were simulated with three different open source helmet models. Simulations were conducted with one impact velocity at three impact locations. The influence of the interaction between helmet and head was also evaluated by altering the friction coefficient. Results: The test methods showed different results depending on helmet models, impact locations, and kinematics evaluated. Similarly, rankings of the helmets were varied based on methods and impact location. Little difference was observed after lowering the friction coefficient in majority of cases. The linear and angular acceleration for the drop side impact were mostly affected. Conclusion: Further evaluations of the test methods and comparison to real impacts is required to evaluate what method resembles head impacts best. Lowered friction coefficient had an effect for the drop impacts, but minor effect for other test methods

The general social problem which this study addresses is the inaccessibility of accurate psychological assessment to some expressively communicatively handicapped members of our society.