Antibiotic resistance is an ongoing global medical crisis and we are in great need of new antibacterial agents to combat rapidly emerging resistant pathogens. Tigecycline is one of few drugs that have been introduced into medicine during the last two decades. It is a broad-spectrum third generation tetracycline that is active against multidrug-resistant bacteria that cause complicated infections. In this thesis I examined the development of tigecycline resistance in Escherichia coli and associated in vitro and in vivo fitness effects. Selections of spontaneous E. coli mutants revealed relatively high accumulation rates of changes in the multidrug efflux system AcrAB-TolC regulation network and in heptose biosynthesis and transport pathways important for lipopolysaccharide (LPS) synthesis. Both groups of mutations led to reduced susceptibility to tigecycline and slower growth compared to the wild-type bacteria. Additional in vitro fitness assays and in vivo competitions showed that LPS mutants were less fit than efflux mutants, providing a possible explanation for why up-regulation of multidrug efflux pumps is the main tigecycline resistance mechanism reported in clinical isolates. Tigecycline was designed to evade the two most common tetracycline resistance mechanisms conferred by Tet proteins, efflux and ribosomal protection. However, tigecycline is a substrate for the tetracycline modifying enzyme Tet(X). Screening of Tet protein mutant libraries showed that it is possible to select Tet mutants with minimal inhibitory concentrations of tigecycline that reach clinically relevant levels. Mutations in Tet proteins that permitted a better protection from tigecycline frequently exhibited reduced activity against earlier generations of tetracyclines, except for the Tet(X) enzyme mutants, which were better at inactivating all tested tetracyclines. This is particularly worrisome because different variants of Tet(X) have recently spread to multidrug-resistant pathogens through horizontal gene transfer. Therefore, Tet(X) mutants with improved activity threaten the medical future of tetracyclines. Multidrug resistance is easily disseminated through horizontally spreading conjugative plasmids. pUUH239.2 is an example of a successful conjugative plasmid that caused the first clonal outbreak of extended spectrum β-lactamase-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae in Scandinavia. This plasmid was formed after rearrangements between two different plasmid backbones and it carries resistance genes to multiple antibiotic classes, heavy metals, and detergents.

No description available.

Resistance to tetracycline (Tc), an inhibitor of protein synthesis, decreases its effectiveness for the treatment of bacterial infections. Tc resistance (TcR) can be mediated by the ribosomal protection protein, Tet(O), which was first reported in Campylobacter jejuni, a cause of bacterial diarrhea worldwide. Tet(O) confers TcR by mediating Tc release from 70S ribosomes, thus restoring protein synthesis. Tet(O) is widely distributed in a variety of bacterial genera, restraining the clinical use of Tc. This thesis is the first investigation into the role of the conserved set of amino acid residues, YSPVST, occupying positions 507-512 at the tip of domain IV of Tet(O). Impaired Tc release from 70S ribosomes observed with Tet(O)mutants lacking one or more of these conserved residues suggests residues at positions 509-512 play a role in Tet(O)-mediated TcR. This study provides insight into the molecular mechanism of TcR, which is essential for the development of novel therapeutics.

O meduloblastoma (MB) é um tumor embrionário que se origina de alterações genéticas em vias importantes para neurôgenese do cerebelo como Sonic hedgehog (Shh) e Wingless (Wnt). Alterações específicas nessas vias permitem a classificação do MB pelo perfil de expressão e mutacional em quatro subgrupos: SHH, WNT, grupo 3 e grupo 4. A ativação dessas vias pode estar relacionada à hipermetilação de reguladores negativos. A dinâmica da hidroximetilação foi descrita durante o desenvolvimento cerebelar, mas não há relatos na literatura sobre os níveis da hidroximetilação em amostras de MB. Os principais objetivos desse trabalho foram: avaliar os níveis de expressão dos genes TETs e IDHs em MB por qPCR; investigar os níveis de hidroximetilação por meio de imuno-histoquímica e dot-blot; avaliar mutações no éxon 4 de IDH1 e IDH2 por sequenciamento; analisar a metilação e hidroximetilação em genes reguladores negativos das vias SHH, WNT, NOTCH, BMP; modular a atividade dos genes TETs por meio do ácido ascórbico e verificar sua influência funcional e epigenética. Foi observada diminuição na expressão dos genes TETs e IDHs em amostras de MB apenas em comparação com cerebelos fetais, mas não em relação aos cerebelos não-fetais. As linhagens celulares de MB apresentaram expressão diminuída em comparação aos dois grupos controles. A classificação das amostras de MB permitiu verificar uma expressão gênica subgrupo específica. A expressão de TET3 apresentou associação com status da doença; e maiores níveis de IDH2 foram associados à metástase. Não foram encontradas mutações no éxon 4 de IDH1, ou no éxon 4 de IDH2 em MB. Os níveis de hidroximetilação global estão diminuídos em amostras de MB e linhagens celulares em comparação aos cerebelos não-neoplásicos; porém não estão associados com características clínicas dos pacientes. Não foram encontrados níveis detectáveis de hidroximetilação nos genes estudados. Os efeitos do ácido ascórbico foram linhagem-específicos, não ocorreu aumento nos níveis de hidroximetilação, mas alterações na expressão do gene TET3. Em conclusão, níveis de hidroximetilação e expressão dos genes TETs e IDHs são importantes para o MB. No entanto, estudos funcionais direcionados à manipulação desses genes são necessários para elucidar suas funções nesse tumor. / Medulloblastoma (MB) is an embryonic tumor that originates from genetic alterations in pathways that are important to the neurogenesis of cerebellum, such as Sonic hedgehog (Shh) e Wingless (Wnt). These alterations allow us to classify MB based in expression and mutational profile in four subgroups: SHH, WNT, group 3 and group 4. The activation of these pathways could be related to hypermethylation of negative regulators. Hydroxymethylation dynamics was described during cerebellum development, but there are not reports in the literature about hydroxymethylation levels in MB samples. The main aims of this study were: to evaluate TET and IDH genes expression in MB using qPCR; to investigate hydroxymethylation levels using immunohistochemistry and dot-blot; to evaluate mutations in exon 4 of IDH1 and IDH2 genes through sequencing analysis; to analyze methylation and hydroxymethylation levels in genes that regulate SHH, WNT, NOTCH and BMP pathways; to modulate TET genes activity through ascorbic acid and verify its functional and epigenetic influence in MB cell lines. We observed a decrease in TET and IDH genes expression in MB samples compared to fetal cerebellum, but not according to non-fetal cerebellum. MB cell lines presented a decrease when compared to both control groups. The classification of MB samples allowed us to verify a subgroup-specific gene expression. TET3 expression was associated with disease status; and higher levels of IDH2 gene expression were associated with metastasis. We did not find mutations in exon 4 of IDH1 and exon 4 of IDH2 genes in MB samples. Hydroxymethylation levels were decreased in MB samples and cell lines when compared to non-neoplastic cerebellum; however, they were not associated with clinical characteristics of the patients. We did not detect hydroxymethylation levels in the studied genes. Ascorbic acid effects are cell linespecific: we did not observe increase in hydroxymethylation levels, but alterations in TET3 gene expression. In conclusion, hydroxymethylation and expression levels of TET and IDH genes are important for MB. Though, functional assays that target these genes are required to elucidate their function in MB.

O meduloblastoma (MB) é um tumor embrionário que se origina de alterações genéticas em vias importantes para neurôgenese do cerebelo como Sonic hedgehog (Shh) e Wingless (Wnt). Alterações específicas nessas vias permitem a classificação do MB pelo perfil de expressão e mutacional em quatro subgrupos: SHH, WNT, grupo 3 e grupo 4. A ativação dessas vias pode estar relacionada à hipermetilação de reguladores negativos. A dinâmica da hidroximetilação foi descrita durante o desenvolvimento cerebelar, mas não há relatos na literatura sobre os níveis da hidroximetilação em amostras de MB. Os principais objetivos desse trabalho foram: avaliar os níveis de expressão dos genes TETs e IDHs em MB por qPCR; investigar os níveis de hidroximetilação por meio de imuno-histoquímica e dot-blot; avaliar mutações no éxon 4 de IDH1 e IDH2 por sequenciamento; analisar a metilação e hidroximetilação em genes reguladores negativos das vias SHH, WNT, NOTCH, BMP; modular a atividade dos genes TETs por meio do ácido ascórbico e verificar sua influência funcional e epigenética. Foi observada diminuição na expressão dos genes TETs e IDHs em amostras de MB apenas em comparação com cerebelos fetais, mas não em relação aos cerebelos não-fetais. As linhagens celulares de MB apresentaram expressão diminuída em comparação aos dois grupos controles. A classificação das amostras de MB permitiu verificar uma expressão gênica subgrupo específica. A expressão de TET3 apresentou associação com status da doença; e maiores níveis de IDH2 foram associados à metástase. Não foram encontradas mutações no éxon 4 de IDH1, ou no éxon 4 de IDH2 em MB. Os níveis de hidroximetilação global estão diminuídos em amostras de MB e linhagens celulares em comparação aos cerebelos não-neoplásicos; porém não estão associados com características clínicas dos pacientes. Não foram encontrados níveis detectáveis de hidroximetilação nos genes estudados. Os efeitos do ácido ascórbico foram linhagem-específicos, não ocorreu aumento nos níveis de hidroximetilação, mas alterações na expressão do gene TET3. Em conclusão, níveis de hidroximetilação e expressão dos genes TETs e IDHs são importantes para o MB. No entanto, estudos funcionais direcionados à manipulação desses genes são necessários para elucidar suas funções nesse tumor. / Medulloblastoma (MB) is an embryonic tumor that originates from genetic alterations in pathways that are important to the neurogenesis of cerebellum, such as Sonic hedgehog (Shh) e Wingless (Wnt). These alterations allow us to classify MB based in expression and mutational profile in four subgroups: SHH, WNT, group 3 and group 4. The activation of these pathways could be related to hypermethylation of negative regulators. Hydroxymethylation dynamics was described during cerebellum development, but there are not reports in the literature about hydroxymethylation levels in MB samples. The main aims of this study were: to evaluate TET and IDH genes expression in MB using qPCR; to investigate hydroxymethylation levels using immunohistochemistry and dot-blot; to evaluate mutations in exon 4 of IDH1 and IDH2 genes through sequencing analysis; to analyze methylation and hydroxymethylation levels in genes that regulate SHH, WNT, NOTCH and BMP pathways; to modulate TET genes activity through ascorbic acid and verify its functional and epigenetic influence in MB cell lines. We observed a decrease in TET and IDH genes expression in MB samples compared to fetal cerebellum, but not according to non-fetal cerebellum. MB cell lines presented a decrease when compared to both control groups. The classification of MB samples allowed us to verify a subgroup-specific gene expression. TET3 expression was associated with disease status; and higher levels of IDH2 gene expression were associated with metastasis. We did not find mutations in exon 4 of IDH1 and exon 4 of IDH2 genes in MB samples. Hydroxymethylation levels were decreased in MB samples and cell lines when compared to non-neoplastic cerebellum; however, they were not associated with clinical characteristics of the patients. We did not detect hydroxymethylation levels in the studied genes. Ascorbic acid effects are cell linespecific: we did not observe increase in hydroxymethylation levels, but alterations in TET3 gene expression. In conclusion, hydroxymethylation and expression levels of TET and IDH genes are important for MB. Though, functional assays that target these genes are required to elucidate their function in MB.

Widespread tetracycline resistance (TcR) has limited the clinical use of Tc for the treatment of bacterial infections. Tet(O) protein is present in many bacteria and is the major transmissible TcR determinant in Campylobacter jejuni, a common cause of acute bacterial diarrhea worldwide. Tet(O) protects ribosomes against the inhibition of protein synthesis by Tc. Tet(O) binds to the ribosome at a similar site as EF-G, a structural homologue of Tet(O) with GTPase activity that is required for protein elongation. EF-G interfered with the kinetics of Tet(O)-mediated Tc release suggesting that EF-G competes with Tet(O) for ribosome binding. Indirect assessment of EF-G and Tet(O) binding to 70S ribosomes by GTP hydrolysis was unable to clearly demonstrate competition for binding. This thesis contributed to the further understanding of the kinetics of Tc release by Tet(O), and may facilitate the development of novel strategies to overcome Tet(O)-mediated TcR in bacteria which cause human infections.

No description available.

The 1968 Tet offensive is referred to as the turning point in the Vietnam War. Of the many battles of Tet, the attack on the American Embassy in Saigon stands out. It is neither the battle's size nor its casualties that makes it important. The significance of the embassy attack lay in the way it was conveyed to the American public. I argue that the 1968 attack on the American Embassy in Saigon served as a catalyst for the media to criticize the government's conduct of the Vietnam War and aided in turning the American public against the war. The news media aided this shift in opinion through its coverage and subsequent narrative of the attack on the U.S. Embassy. My goal is to examine the ongoing relationship between the media and the public by examining the major newspapers; the New York Times, Los Angeles Times, Washington Post, and the Christian Science Monitor, and the major news magazines, Time, Life, and Newsweek. It is important to observe that the news media is still a business that must appeal to its customers (readers and advertisers). As the public view changed, the media reflected that change in order to appeal to its audience. At the same time the news media's consistency of war coverage and reflection of public sentiment helped further perpetuate the public's disapproval of the conflict and continued this cycle. How did the media report the unexpected attack on the American Embassy and how did it affect public opinion of Vietnam? How does the press coverage of the embassy attack fit in the larger context of media coverage of the Tet Offensive in determining the relationship between the media and the public? Which one influenced the other in creating opinions of the Vietnam War? These questions are important not only because the news media was a major contributor to Americans' knowledge of the war but also because of the role the media plays in the society of the era and how its narrative became the historical narrative. My focus on the U.S. Embassy attack during the Tet Offensive is due to the chaos that surrounded the attack not only from the military's perspective but also from the media's. Since the attack took place in Saigon, headquarters of the media companies' in Vietnam, it was readily accessible to journalists. The attacks surprised the military, government, and the public, and in the midst of the chaos the media was there to report on it all. Reports constantly changed as to what went on and frequently contradicted "official" statements. These are the reasons why the media's involvement in the Vietnam War was filled with misconceptions and controversy. / Master of Arts

Oligodendrocytes (OLs) are the glial cells responsible for the synthesis and maintenance of myelin in the central nervous system. Recently, Hoxa2 was found by our laboratory to be expressed by OLs and down-regulated at the terminal differentiation stage during oligodendrogenesis in mice (Nicolay et al., 2004b). To further investigate the role of Hoxa2 in oligodendroglial development, a tetracycline regulated controllable expression system was utilized to establish two stable cell lines where the expression level of Hoxa2 gene could be up-regulated (CG4-SHoxa2 [sense Hoxa2]) or down-regulated (CG4-ASHoxa2 [Antisense Hoxa2]) in CG4 glial cells. Morphologically, no obvious differences were observed between CG4-SHoxa2 and CG4 wild-type cells, whereas CG4-ASHoxa2 cells exhibited much shorter processes compared with those of CG4 wild-type cells. Data from BrdU uptake assays indicated that an up-regulation of Hoxa2 gene promoted the proliferation of CG4-SHoxa2 cells. PDGF&alphaR (Platelet-derived growth factor [PDGF] receptor alpha), a receptor for the mitogen PDGF that enhances the survival and proliferation of OLs, was assessed at the mRNA level in both CG4 and CG4-SHoxa2 cells, but no significant differences were observed between Hoxa2 up-regulated cells and wild-type CG4 cells with respect to the mRNA level of PDGF&alphaR. In addition, specific investigations of the differentiation of CG4-SHoxa2 cells were carried out by characterizing the composition of stage specific oligodendroglial subpopulations in culture. Our immunocytochemical study did not indicate the differentiation course of the genetically engineered cells was significantly altered compared to CG4 wild-type cells, although results from semi-quantitative RT-PCR of oligodendrocyte-specific ceramide galactosyltransferase (CGT) and myelin basic protein (MBP) indicate that the differentiation of CG4-SHoxa2 cells was delayed when Hoxa2 gene was up-regulated.

Oligodendrocytes (OLs) are the glial cells responsible for the synthesis and maintenance of myelin in the central nervous system. Recently, Hoxa2 was found by our laboratory to be expressed by OLs and down-regulated at the terminal differentiation stage during oligodendrogenesis in mice (Nicolay et al., 2004b). To further investigate the role of Hoxa2 in oligodendroglial development, a tetracycline regulated controllable expression system was utilized to establish two stable cell lines where the expression level of Hoxa2 gene could be up-regulated (CG4-SHoxa2 [sense Hoxa2]) or down-regulated (CG4-ASHoxa2 [Antisense Hoxa2]) in CG4 glial cells. Morphologically, no obvious differences were observed between CG4-SHoxa2 and CG4 wild-type cells, whereas CG4-ASHoxa2 cells exhibited much shorter processes compared with those of CG4 wild-type cells. Data from BrdU uptake assays indicated that an up-regulation of Hoxa2 gene promoted the proliferation of CG4-SHoxa2 cells. PDGF&alphaR (Platelet-derived growth factor [PDGF] receptor alpha), a receptor for the mitogen PDGF that enhances the survival and proliferation of OLs, was assessed at the mRNA level in both CG4 and CG4-SHoxa2 cells, but no significant differences were observed between Hoxa2 up-regulated cells and wild-type CG4 cells with respect to the mRNA level of PDGF&alphaR. In addition, specific investigations of the differentiation of CG4-SHoxa2 cells were carried out by characterizing the composition of stage specific oligodendroglial subpopulations in culture. Our immunocytochemical study did not indicate the differentiation course of the genetically engineered cells was significantly altered compared to CG4 wild-type cells, although results from semi-quantitative RT-PCR of oligodendrocyte-specific ceramide galactosyltransferase (CGT) and myelin basic protein (MBP) indicate that the differentiation of CG4-SHoxa2 cells was delayed when Hoxa2 gene was up-regulated.