No description available.

No description available.

No description available.

No description available.

This thesis examines the concept of the state in the context of the Indus River Valley, located in northwest India and Pakistan. In the first section, I synthesize several popular trends in state discussion from both inside and outside of archaeological theory. I then apply my synthesized approach to state definition to the archaeological record from the Indus River Valley. The resulting work visits both the concept of the state and the rich cultural history of the Indus Civilization. I determine that there was a state in the Indus River Valley, but that the Indus state was very different from others scholars have identified in the archaeological record.

River networks act as a link between components of the terrestrial landscape, such as soils and groundwater, with the atmosphere and oceans, and are now believed to contribute significantly to global budgets of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O). The idea of rivers being an inert conduit for carbon and nitrogen to reach the coast has been challenged recently, with considerable processing of carbon and nitrogen occurring in both the water column and bed sediments in the various aquatic components that make up a river network, including lakes, streams, rivers and estuaries. Although understanding of the cycling of carbon and nitrogen has improved markedly in the last 20 years, there is still much uncertainty regarding the production and emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) linked to this processing across river catchments and few studies have quantified GHG fluxes from source to sea. Therefore this study aimed to a) understand the spatial and temporal saturations and fluxes of GHGs from both the freshwater River Tay catchment (Scotland) and the River Tay estuary, and b) understand what controls the production of GHGs within both a freshwater lake and across multiple sites in the freshwater river using laboratory incubations of sediment. Hotspots of in-stream production and emission were evident both in the freshwater catchment and the estuary, with significant temporal and spatial variability in saturation and emission (density) for CH4, CO2 and N2O. CH4 emission densities, across the freshwater river sites, ranged from 1720 to 15500 μg C m-2 d-1 with a freshwater catchment wide mean of 4640 μg C m-2 d-1, and in general decreased from upland to lowland sites along the main river stem, with notable peaks of emission in a lowland tributary and at the outflow of a lowland loch. This corresponds well with the main drivers of spatial variability which include allochthonous inputs from gas rich soil waters and in-situ production in fine grained organic rich sediments. CH4 production was observed to be higher in the lowland tributaries (R. Isla 4500 μg C m-2 d- 1) compared to main-stem river sites both in the lowland river (129 μg C m-2 d-1) and upland river which displayed an uptake of CH4 (-1210 μg C m-2 d-1). The main driver of spatial variability in CH4 production rates was the quality of the sediment, as production was higher in fine grained sediments rich in carbon compared to sand and gravels with a low carbon content. CH4 production also varied seasonally, with temperature and seasonal variation in sediment quality as the predominant driving factors. CO2 emission densities across the freshwater catchment ranged from 517 to 2550 mg C m-2 d-1 with a catchment mean flux density of 1500 mg C m-2 d-1. Flux densities on the whole increased along the main river stem from upland sites to lowland sites, with higher fluxes in lowland tributaries. Seasonally, CO2 flux density was highest in late summer and autumn and lowest in winter at most sites, highlighting the importance in seasonal environmental controls such as temperature, light, and substrate availability. Production rates in the sediment increased from upland to lowland sites with highest production rates evident in the lowland tributaries, and in autumn sediment samples. N2O emission density also showed considerable spatial and seasonal variation across the catchment with flux densities ranging from 176 to 1850 μg N m-2 d-1 with a mean flux of 780 μg N m-2 d-1. Mean fluxes were highest in the lowland tributaries and lowest in the upland river with sediment experiments finding similar spatial variation in N2O production. On the whole, in-stream N2O production and emission across the freshwater catchment was driven by increases in nutrient concentration (NO3 -, NH4 +) which in turn was related to the proportion of agricultural landuse. The saturation and emission of GHGs also varied substantially both spatially and temporally in the River Tay estuary, with a mean emission density of 2790 μg CH4-C m-2 d-1, 990 mg CO2-C m-2 d-1 and 162 μg N2O-N m-2 d-1. The spatial variability of GHG concentrations and emission densities in the estuary were predominantly controlled by the balance between lateral inputs (from tidal flushing of surrounding intertidal areas), in-situ microbial production/consumption (both in the water column and bed sediments) and physical mixing/loss processes. Although emission densities of CH4, CO2 and N2O appear low compared to the freshwater river, this is because the estuary is emitting large quantities of gas in the middle and outer estuary, for example net annual emission of N2O increased from 84.7 kg N2O-N yr-1 in the upper freshwater section of the estuary to 888 kg N2O-N yr-1 in the middle estuary section, then decreased to 309 kg N2O-N yr-1 in the saltwater lower estuary. Overall, this study has shown that both dissolved and aerial fluxes of GHGs vary markedly both spatially and temporal from source to sea in a temperate river catchment, with hotspots of in-stream production and emission across the river catchment. The catchment (river, lake and estuary) was a smaller source of CO2, CH4 and N2O emission (total emission and by area) compared to other highly polluted aquatic systems both in the UK and globally.

It is now well established that a wide range of natural and anthropogenic chemicals present in the aquatic environment have the potential to disrupt the endocrine system of many organisms. In fish, many of these effects appear to be of a feminising nature, including stimulation of vitellogenin production and induction of intersex. In piscivorous birds these so called endocrine disrupting contaminants have been shown to impair reproduction, influencing reproductive behaviour, sex ratio, eggshell thickness and reproductive success. The effects seen in fish have been associated with high levels of oestrogenic activity in the effluent from waste water treatments works (WwTWs), but few studies have focused on the effects of WwTWs effluents on birds. In this thesis, the effects of effluents from WwTWs on fish and birds were investigated in the Tamar catchment, SW England. The work spanned making detailed assessment on the oestrogenic and anti-androgenic activity of 3 WwTWs effluents, using a variety of water sampling techniques and applying both recombinant yeast oestrogen screen (YES) and recombinant yeast androgen screen (anti-YAS) bioassays to quantify the different hormonal activities. A survey was undertaken of the hormonal activities at 13 sites to determine concentrations of contaminants in the surface waters throughout the Tamar catchment, using both recombinant yeast screens and targeted analytical chemistry for specific pollutants (LC/MS-TOF and GCMS). An ELISA was developed to quantify vitellogenin (VTG) in the bullhead (our study fish sentinel) as a biomarker of oestrogen exposure, and evidence of endocrine disruption was investigated in wild populations of the bullhead, Cottus gobio and the dipper, Cinclus cinclus. Macroinvertebrates from upstream and downstream of three WwTW's effluent discharges and from three sampling sites were also sampled as an index of overall water quality in the Tamar catchment, and as an assessment of food availability for the bullheads and dippers. For the studies on the hormonal activities in three WwTWs in the Tamar catchment, samples were collected by both spot and passive sampling; passive samplers (in replicate) were placed in the effluent discharges for a three week period, and collected on days 7, 14 and 21, spot samples were taken simultaneously. Measurement of total oestrogenic and total anti-androgenic activity was conducted using the YES and anti-YAS, respectively. Spot and passive samples were collected from 13 sites within the Tamar catchment (sampling sites were >2 km downstream of effluent discharges). Additionally, liquid chromatography mass spectrometry time-of-flight (LC/MS-TOF) was used to measure the concentration of oestrone (E1), 17β-oestrodiol (E2) and 17α-ethinylestradiol (EE2) in each sample. Gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GCMS) was used to measure the concentration of individual PBDE and PCB congeners in the spot samples only. Levels of oestrogenic and anti-androgenic activity observed in the WwTWs effluent were comparable with those measured in effluents in the UK and in other countries. Surface waters of the Tamar, away from the WwTWs effluent discharges, contained very little oestrogenic activity (<1.1 ng E2 EQs L-1), and anti-androgenic activity was undetectable. Quantification of oestrogenic activity using passive samplers showed an increasing amount of total oestrogenic activity between days 7 and 21 when measured by the both the YES and LC/MS-TOF. Low levels of PBDE congeners 47, 99, 100, 138 and 153 were detected in the spot samples taken from the Tamar catchment, with BDE 47 being the most abundant. In contrast PCBs were undetectable. Neither PBDEs nor PCBs were detected in any of the extracts from the passive samples. No assay was available to measure VTG (one of the most widely used biomarkers of oestrogen exposure in fish) in the bullhead and so an enzyme linked immunosorbant assay (ELISA) was developed for application to studies on wild bullheads in the Tamar catchment. The bullhead vitellogenin (bh-VTG) ELISA was developed successfully, and proved to be sensitive and robust, with a detection range between 10.5 and 300 ng bh-VTG mL-1 (undiluted), comparing favourably with other fish VTG ELISAs. Plasma VTG concentrations measured in male bullheads (collected from the same sites as for the water samples) ranged from below the limit of detection to 990 ng bh-VTG mL-1. Whether these upper levels in the range reflected VTG induction was difficult to conclude. Because of this controlled caged exposures with bullheads and trout were used to assess the relative levels of oestrogenicity in two key WwTWs effluent discharges and to determine the response sensitivity of the bullheads (and trout) to those effluents. These controlled exposures found no responses in plasma VTG in bullheads (ranging between 126 and 934 ng bh-VTG mL-1) suggesting a lack of sensitivity for VTG induction. This was supported by the inability to induce VTG in fish held in the laboratory and treated with steroidal oestrogens. For the effluent exposures on the caged rainbow trout, it was also found that there was no significant induction of VTG, a species normally sensitive to oestrogens. These findings may indicate that the fish were highly stressed due to the river being in spate and the movement of the cages during the controlled exposures. It may also be the case, however, that the use of immature female rainbow trout with a highly variable baseline plasma VTG concentration may prevent any detection of a response. There were no signs of sexual disruption in any of the gonads analysed from either male or female wild bullheads, demonstrating that any hormonal activity present in the catchment away from the WwTWs effluents was not sufficient to induce adverse effects on reproductive development. An interesting feature noted in the male testes of the bullheads was the presence of spermatid masses, which have been recorded in 10 other Cottidae species, but not previously in the bullhead. For the studies on dippers, eggs were collected from the nests of breeding dippers to measure for sperm numbers and morphology from sperm trapped in the perivitelline membrane (PVM), and the yolks were analysed for PBDEs, PCBs and organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) by GCMS, for E1, E2, and EE2 by LC/MS-TOF. Eggs of the dipper were collected from nests at the 13 sampling sites, plus an additional three sites and over three years of field study. The number of sperm trapped in the PVM ranged between three and 188, with a mean of 68.78 ± 8.78 SE. Dipper sperm had not previously been characterised, and was found to be similar to other passerine sperm, in that the head was helical, complemented by a mitochondrial helix or keel, which continued in a spiral around the flagellum. Sperm were classed as ‘abnormal’ if they did not adhere to this typical structure. No assessment of motility could be made in relation to the structural abnormalities seen. Contaminants in the dipper eggs were dominated by BDE 99, an unusual result considering the dippers aquatic lifestyle. PCB 153 was the most common PCB, and p,p’-DDE was the most abundant OCP; all other pesticides tested were below the limit of detection, as were the levels of all three steroid oestrogens. There was inter- and intra-nest variability between contaminant burdens in all eggs as well as the number of sperm trapped in the PVM, but there was no relationship between sperm number and the level of contaminant loadings in the eggs. There were no correlations between contaminants and oestrogenic activity measured in the water samples, and plasma VTG concentrations in bullheads or contaminant loadings in eggs, or indeed sperm number. Analysis of macroinvertebrate assemblages proved that the surface waters of the Tamar catchment were of ‘very good’ quality, even in close proximity to WwTWs effluent discharges.

No description available.

The severity and frequency of flooding-related catastrophes are increasing, and lands adjacent to rivers that were formerly the hub for city growth and commerce now face constant threats of flooding. As flood risks have become more at the forefront of legislative consciousness, with governments increasing flood-protection and mitigation measures for flood-prone areas, landowners within such areas are left with little support and direction for their lands. In exploring the issues facing landowners within flood-prone lands, this practicum focuses on whether governments should be directly involved in finding solutions for landowners to ensure a situation where both private landowners and governments benefit. The research concludes that development within flood-prone areas should be avoided, and that municipalities should, given adequate capacity and ability, relocate existing residents from flood-prone areas to repurpose the area for flood-mitigation measures. The research recommends that the City of Brandon become a member, and participate in the Red River Basin Commission, while also exploring opportunities to play a leadership role in the implementation of a similar commission for the Assiniboine River Basin. / February 2017

Dans le contexte international de requalification des fronts d’eau urbains amorcé dans les années 1960, les espaces fluvio-urbains rhodaniens apparaissent comme singuliers. Malgré le discours des édiles locaux et un potentiel urbanistique certain, les rives urbanisées du Rhône à l’aval de Lyon ne font pas l’objet d’aménagements contemporains d’envergure. Le patrimoine urbain des rives rhodaniennes est figé ou délaissé, jusqu’à tomber parfois en déshérence. Cet immobilisme rivulaire reflète le paradoxe rhodanien de l'atonie de villes installées sur les rives d’un fleuve majestueux et profondément aménagé. Il démontre aussi que la reconquête des waterfronts n’est pas un processus systématique ni universel.La marginalisation de ces rives s’explique par la conjonction de facteurs relevant à la fois de l’hydrosystème et du sociosystème. L’hydrologie rhodanienne agit comme une contrainte sur les espaces fluvio-urbains qui sont aussi pénalisés par les dysfonctionnements d’un jeu d’acteurs lacunaire et par la pesanteur des infrastructures routières installées sur les berges. Ces éléments s’insèrent dans un cadre administratif et réglementaire complexe qui est une entrave supplémentaire à la recomposition des rives urbaines. Les faiblesses de la gestion de ces espaces s’accompagnent d’un défaut de prise en charge du risque d’inondation : les villes peinent à adopter des politiques de prévention en raison de la variabilité spécifique du risque rhodanien et de l’inertie propre au système des acteurs urbains. Cependant, le risque, en devenant objet politique, s’affirme comme un élément moteur participant à l’aménagement global du territoire rhodanien. La mise en place du « Plan Rhône », projet intégré de développement durable visant la gestion concertée du risque à l’échelle du bassin, constitue le point de départ d’un renouvellement territorial. Les villes en sont encore pour l’instant tenues à l’écart. / The urban river spaces in the lower Rhône valley are a special case in the international waterfront redevelopment process that began during the sixties. There has been no significant restructuring of Rhône riverfronts downstream of Lyon in spite of their urbanistic potential and the wishes expressed by some local authorities. The urban heritage of the Rhône riverbanks is ossified or neglected and sometimes completely abandoned. This lack of action concerning the waterfronts reflects the paradoxical situation concerning the Rhône valley: a combination of inert towns and an imposing river that has been highly developed. It also shows that waterfront redevelopment is neither a systematic nor a universal process.The marginalization of these river-banks is due to factors related to both the hydrosystem and the social system. The hydrology of the river acts as a constraint on urban planning, and the Rhône riverfronts also suffer from problems caused by deficiencies in the various bodies involved and from the heavy road infrastructures built on the river-banks. A complex administrative and legislative framework further hampers the urban redevelopment of the river spaces.Poor management of these riverfront spaces combines with failures in flood risk policies. Cities struggle to apply safety politics because the Rhône presents a specific and changing risk and because of the passivity of the urban actors. However, as the risk has become a political issue, it has turned out to be a driving force behind the development of the Rhône riverbank area. An integrated sustainable development project named “Plan Rhône” aims at coordinating risk management in the whole of the river basin, and is the first step in territorial renewal. The towns are not yet involved in this project.