The aim of this study was to generate a model (or theory) that explains students’ concerns as they tackle non-routine mathematical problems. This was achieved by using the grounded theory approach as suggested by Glaser and Strauss (1967) and further developed by Glaser (1978; 1992; 1998; 2001; 2003). The study took place in the context of a problem-solving course offered at the undergraduate level. As methods of data collection, the study made use of the problem-solving rubrics (or scripts) that students generated during the course. Other sources of data included interviews with the students and observations in class. The model generated as a result of this study suggests that problem solving can be seen as a four-stage process. The process was labelled ‘solutioning’ and is characterised by students trying to resolve the following concerns: Generating knowledge; Generating solutions; Validating the results, and Improving the results. The model also makes reference to pseudo-solutioning as an alternative approach to solutioning. During pseudo-solutioning, instead of trying to resolve the concerns listed above, students focus on trying to satisfy the academic requirement to submit an acceptable piece of work. Thus, pseudo-solutioning can be seen as an important variation to solutioning. After presenting the model of ‘solutioning’, the study provides an illustration of how it can be used to describe students’ processes. This is done in set of case studies in which three problem-solving processes are considered. The case studies provide a view of how the model developed fits the data and serves to highlight relevant patterns of behaviour observable as students solve problems. The case studies illustrate how the concepts suggested by the model can be used for explaining success and failure in the processes considered. This study contributes to the study of problem solving in mathematics education by providing a conceptualisation of what students do as they try to solve problems. The concepts that the model suggests are relevant for explaining how students resolve their main concerns as they tackle problems during the course. However, some of these concepts (e.g., ‘reducing complexity’, ‘blinding activities’, ‘transferring’) may also be of relevance to problem solving in other areas.

My PhD project is called ”Learning to be Norwegian. Religion and national identity in religious education in Norway.” It is a case study of how religion is mobilised in the construction of national identity, both from above and below. The "above" perspective is operationalised as a discourse analysis of Curricula in Norway from 1974 to 2008. The “below” perspective is operationalised as participant observation in classrooms, following 15 teachers in 3 secondary schools in Eastern Norway. In terms of theoretical questions asked of this material, I engage with the literature on multiculturalism in Western Europe (Barry 2001, Baumann 1996, 1999, Eriksen 2007, Fuglerud and Eriksen 2007, Joppke 2004, 2009, Modood 2007, Parekh 2006, Phillips 2007). I identify a distinction between liberalists, multiculturalists and hybridists in terms of the key question: What is the best way to understand groups with identity claims? My main claim to originality in is that people can be described as engaging in fluidising and solidifying practices – making social structures more fluid or more solid through their social activities. This implies that there are different levels of viscosity in how solid or fluid groups with identity claims are. Theorists dealing with groups with identity claims, including the sociology of religion, education and identity, would benefit from a variable social ontology of groups. I propose that the terms “Viscosity” - “boundaries” and “work”, taken together provide one such framework that works well with my data. Significant empirical findings include a shift over time in the meaning of the term “values”. In 1974, the word “values” was connected primarily with ethics in the formal curricula. By the 1990s this had changed. It was now also, and dominantly, connected to notions of identity. Religion is consistently mobilised for identity through metaphors of personal stability, or and through establishing metaphorical connections that make the nation appear as sharing crucial features with the individual self. These ideas are revisited in classroom ethnographic data. The assumptions found in the curriculum are challenged by the practices of teachers and pupils. It is clear that the most important concepts of identity, such as “Muslim” or “Norwegian” are being worked on by defining what and who is on the inside and what and who is on the outside. Nevertheless, the classrooms become effective learning communities, though more through shared actions, shared discussions and well-managed disagreement than through sameness and shared values. Teachers and pupils use the concept of “facts” both to further their own normative arguments, but also to remain out of the reach of accusations of cultural or religious insensitivity. Finally, my study undermines static conceptions of how discourses affect the social world. As an alternative, I try to develop an understanding of actors engaging in fluidising and solidifying practices.

This study consists in identifying and analyzing the theory and practice of English language teaching (ELT) in Portugal as far as issues of English as an International Language (EIL) are concerned. Through qualitative and quantitative research approaches (273 questionnaires, 22 interviews, 12 sets of pedagogic materials and 11 documents), it examines, firstly, aspects of EIL in the current basis and secondary education national policies and how ELT materials have interpreted the national guidelines and, secondly, how teachers and students view central aspects of EIL. There is an overall tendency for ELT in Portugal to incorporate the concept of EIL not only because most subjects show awareness of the global role of English today but also because the national ELT policies embrace the notion of EIL. However, while the current policies suggest that English classes should integrate linguistic and cultural aspects of English speaking communities, such directives do not seem to be fully developed in the classroom. Although the English syllabus and textbooks for basic and secondary education show some significant references to some English speaking cultures and English varieties, mainly American English (AmE), some subjects displayed some quite conservative attitudes towards English learning and teaching stating that British English (BrE) is the only variety to be learned and that there is not much usefulness in learning about other varieties. To conclude, this study identifies possible consequences that the findings may bring to the teaching of English in the international, European and Portuguese contexts. Moreover, it emphasizes the importance of expanding the EIL debate to include the voices of the Expanding Circle, in the sense that a thorough analysis of learners’ and teachers’ attitudes toward EIL can help identify the present state and future developments in the use of English all over the world.

The first mathematics course for approximately 53 percent of U.S. community college students is a developmental algebra course. Many such students appear to be severely debilitated by their previous encounters with mathematics. Due to numerous misconceptions that dictate against a traditional course, a "reform" beginning algebra course, with function as the unifying concept, was designed. Since there is little research on this population to justify such a approach, the key research question for this thesis becomes: Can adult students who arrive at college having had debilitating prior experiences with algebra acquire at least a process level understanding of function through appropriate instructional treatment? Answering this question provides crucial information for future curricular design in the area of developmental mathematics at the college level. The theoretical framework considers different aspects that make up the function concept, taking critical account of several current theories of multiple representations and encapsulation of process as object to build a view of function in terms of different facets (representations) and different layers (of development via procedure, process, object, and procept). Ninety-two students at four community colleges completed written function surveys before and after a "reform" beginning algebra course. Twelve students, representing all four sites, participated in task-based interviews. Comparison of pre- and post-course surveys provided data indicating statistically significant improvement in student abilities to correctly interpret and manipulate function machines, two-variable equations, two-column tables, two-dimensional graphs, written definitions and function notation. The students were divided into three categories (highly capable, capable, and incapable) based on their demonstrated understanding of function. Using the interviews, visual profiles for students in each category were developed. The profiles indicate that the development of the concept image of function in such students is complex and uneven. The cognitive links between facets is sometimes nonexistent, sometimes tenuous, and often unidirectional. The highly capable demonstrated some understanding across all facets while the incapable indicated understanding of the more primitive facets, such as colloquial and numeric, only. Profound differences were noted particularly in the geometric, written, verbal, and notation facets. Overall, the target population appeared able to develop a process layer understanding of function, but this development was far from uniform across facets and across students.

Christianity holds a central place in Religious Education (RE) in England. Since the Education Reform Act of 1988, it has been formally named in legislation relating to Religious Education; formerly its presence in the curriculum was assumed, but there was no specific indication of a requirement to teach particular religions - not even in the Education Act of 1944 which was of particular importance in formalising arrangements for Religious Education. Interpretation of ERA (DfES Circular 1/94) suggested that Christianity should 'predominate' in the RE curriculum. This study arises from recognition of the status accorded to Christianity in RE and the recognition that its representation and the shaping of this have not in the main been addressed by research. My study falls into three main parts. Part 1 considers the shaping of Christianity in RE (Chs.1 and 2) drawing on relevant written sources, among which Agreed Syllabuses hold a key place. Chapter 3 focuses particularly on the representation of Christianity in Agreed Syllabuses from the period 2001-2004, providing necessary background to the research which underpins Part 2. Part 2's concern is the teaching - and thus representation - of Christianity in key stage 3 in schools with and without a religious character. Based on a survey undertaken across England, it draws on data gathered from teachers. It includes an analysis of the content teachers select about Christianity (Chapter 5), and analyses the aspirations teachers have for their pupils' learning about and from Christianity. Teachers' own experience of studying the tradition is discussed in Chapter 7. These chapters in particular offer material relating to the representation of Christianity and the factors which shape this which, as far as I am aware, is unavailable elsewhere. Part 3 takes up my contention at the end of Part 2 (Chapter 9), that a new configuration of Christianity is needed in RE. A case is presented for this (Chapter 10), taking into account especially the changing face of the tradition globally, and drawing out possible implications for RE from some recent studies of Christianity. Chapter 11 takes my own recommendation seriously and explores a possible way forward in reconfiguring Christianity so that RE may offer a more adequate representation of the tradition in the present. A final note reflects on the challenge a new configuration presents to RE. The above summary of my concerns points to the argument I advance: that the representation of Christianity in RE has been shaped by factors extrinsic to a considered study of the tradition; this has allowed the emergence of a 'curriculum Christianity' which fails to do justice to its diverse presence and dynamic, locally and globally. Teachers are heirs to this curriculum tradition and in some measure its guardians and interpreters. The relatively few scholarly attempts to give account of Christianity 'as a religion' bears on their encounter with the tradition in their own studies and, it would seem, on its representation in RE. I argue that a re-conceptualisation of what might be understood by 'Christianity' and the development of new paradigms for its study might contribute to a more authentic representation of Christianity in RE.

This thesis investigates the relationship between the motivation of secondary school teachers and students of English in Malta. The study involved 34 Form Four teachers of English and their 612 students (15 year-olds). A mixed methods research methodology, involving a survey and an interview study which complemented each other, was employed. The survey measured levels of teacher and student motivation and the relationship between them through questionnaires. Some of the teachers who had taken part in the survey were then interviewed about their motivation to teach and their perceptions of the relationship between this motivation and their students' motivation to learn. The results show that mainly two factors link the motivation of teachers and students of English. These are a good rapport between teachers and their students and high teacher efficacy. Both of these factors increase the motivation of the students and their teachers. Type of school and the students' attitudes toward Maltese speakers of English were also found to be influencing factors in the relationship between teacher and student motivation. Recommendations which stem from the study are that teachers should seek ways of professional self-improvement through support groups and Continual Professional Development courses. Other suggestions, both at the school level and the policy level, are put forward. These recommendations, if implemented, should improve teacher motivation which would in turn lead to improved student motivation as a positive relationship between the two has been established. The study is one of its kind in that it has established, for the first time, that an empirical link exists between teacher and student motivation.

The ‘National English Teaching Reform’ at university level, also known as the Reform of College English, was initiated in China in 2003. The new mode of English teaching was a combination of classroom teaching and student self-access learning via CWISs (Campus-Wide Information System). The emphasis of the Reform was on developing the students' all-round ability, especially the ability of listening and speaking. The purpose of this study was to research the implementation of this curriculum innovation in a specific university. The research applied both quantitative and qualitative methods, namely, questionnaires, interviews, listening comprehension classroom observations, and document review. According to the data collected, multi-media facilities were more widely used than before but individual self-access facilities were insufficient for every student to get access when needed. At the same time, full advantage of the facilities was not being taken of. With regard to English Listening Comprehension, students spent more time in practising, but rather than being motivated by a wish to improve their all-round ability, many of them regarded it as necessary primarily for the purpose of passing the nationwide College English Test (CET), a qualification highly regarded by employers. A general finding was that autonomous study had not yet been realised in the university. Various reasons for this are explored, among them the fact that teachers did not provide a bridge between classroom instruction and self-access learning. Teachers' own difficulties in coping with the technology are also considered. Four series of English Listening Comprehension textbooks were designed for the Reform and were recommended by the Ministry of Education. However, the researched University used another textbook package because it was evaluated to be more suitable for students.

The research work is in the area of architectural design guidelines and more particularly in the interior design of kindergartens in Palestine. The aim of this research is to enhance the quality of learning environment of kindergartens in Palestine by developing a new design and monitoring guidelines. The research focuses on the methodology of developing the interior learning environment of kindergartens, which based mainly on understanding the key players’ needs, difficulties and problems in this sector in Palestine. The study uses three international case studies from (Japan, Austria and South Africa) in addition to cases from the UK. The international studies hold general concepts that could be considered international criteria, from which the future Palestinian kindergartens building regulations can learn and take advantage, after re-moulding them in the Palestinian culture and characteristics. It is believed that, regardless of the disadvantages and difficulties of the current Palestinian kindergarten buildings, these buildings carry unique principles and characteristics that can enhance and enrich the Palestinian learning environment. Furthermore, this study has a three local case study from Palestine, which are used to make a comparison between: the Palestinian unique principles; the international principles; and the missing principles in the current Palestinian kindergarten buildings. As a result of this comparison it will be determined what should be kept or excluded from the previous three drivers, while suggesting new ‘drafts’ and recommendations. These drafts are discussed with key players to outline the main difficulties they may face in applying them or monitoring them by MOHE. This will enable the study to generate the best final recommendations that can meet the Palestinians’ needs and aspirations. These final recommendations will be considered as the base that MOHE can rely on in forming their own regulations in the future.

The thesis is divided into two parts. Part A comprises a literature review of previous research on poor comprehenders (PCs), self-concept, children’s attribution styles, and how children with learning difficulties (LD) perceive themselves as learners. Research has indicated that children with LD often hold negative academic self-perceptions. Part B describes the empirical study which explored PCs’ vulnerability to negative self-perceptions as learners in comparison with their peers. Additionally their attribution styles were investigated. The sample comprised 114 children (aged 9-11) from a mainstream primary school. They were divided into groups of poor readers, good readers, PCs and low-average readers, using scores obtained using the Neale Analysis of Reading Ability (NARA-II). A structured interview was conducted to obtain information about each child’s controllability attributions (i.e. how much perceived control he/she had over successes and failures). Each child then completed three self-report questionnaires measuring academic self-concept, reading self-concept, and self-perceptions as learners. Teachers’ perceptions of their pupils as learners were sought through administration of a questionnaire. Results indicated that PCs were not differentiated from their peers in terms of attribution style, nor were they differentiated from good and low-average readers in their academic self-concept, reading self-concept or self-perceptions as learners. This is in contrast with poor readers, who held more negative self-perceptions than the other groups on all of these measures. Furthermore, only a small percentage of PCs recognised their reading comprehension difficulties. Class teachers’ perceptions of their pupils as learners were similar to those of the pupils with reading and comprehension difficulties (poor readers and PCs). Teachers’ perceptions of good and low-average readers were predominantly different from those of the pupils themselves. In addition, children’s national curriculum levels indicated that the majority of PCs were performing in the average range. The implications of these findings for educational professionals are discussed.

This thesis is a discussion of the way young people of migrant and minority ethnic background experience schooling and plan for their futures within two different national contexts - England and Spain. It is based on a comparative and ethnographic fieldwork which I carried out in Birmingham and Madrid over the course of 14 months in 2007-2009. As part of the research, I did particular observation at a school in each city and interviewed a total of 54 young people. The thesis presents how they described their life at school, their plans and wishes for the future, and the influences which they considered important to their schooling and future lives. The education of migrant and minority ethnic groups is a topic that increasingly appears in public and political debates in Europe. Reports and research often describe education as crucial to socio-economic well-being and empowerment, but they also show a tendency among migrant and minority ethnic groups to be disadvantaged in terms of education. The literature presents a number of ways to understand this phenomenon and shows that schooling is affected by many complex and interlinking issues. Comparative research has good potential for exploring these complexities, but there is a gap within the existing comparative literature. Most comparative studies of migrant and minority ethnic youth in education are quantitative and analyse the situation of either large categories of young people or distinct ethnic or national groups. Furthermore, these studies focus almost exclusively on achievement and attainment. Thus, there is a lack of qualitative comparative research, which explores how young people from a variety of ethnic or national backgrounds experience schooling and plan for their future, and which discusses their experiences from a more holistic and contextual perspective. In this thesis I respond to this gap. I analyse the experiences of young people from a mixture of ethnic and national backgrounds. The data has been collected using qualitative ethnographic research methods. Finally, the findings are shaped by my informants’ narratives and perceptions and this has given the thesis a broader perspective than the traditional focus on achievement and attainment. The main findings arising from the data was the importance of social relations in influencing young people’s schooling experiences and life projects. Friends and family were described as particularly influential in providing support and socio-emotional wellbeing. In the thesis I analyse these findings through the lens of social capital. I argue that socio-emotional well-being should be considered a resource in itself and included in social capital theory. However, the analysis also shows that young people of migrant and minority ethnic origin do not all have the same conditions for accessing this ‘resource of well-being’. The thesis therefore concludes with a number of practical recommendations, aimed to improve the inclusion and general well-being of migrant and minority ethnic youth in schools.