Government, donors and NGOs in southern Niassa have been, after the 1992 peace agreement, extensively involved in agricultural development programmes to improve smallholders' food security. A study of the area and literature review revealed that many factors limited the benefits of agricultural market development programmes. Yet, opportunities in southern Niassa suggested that appropriately designed programmes could improve the standard of living of smallholders if these programmes were designed on a solid understanding of factors and strategies influencing agricultural market participation by smallholders. The main research hypothesis of this study was that: smallholders would participate in agricultural markets when their wealth status was high, when they had enough available household labour and when cash crops were profitable." Four main hypotheses were investigated: (i) factors and strategies identified through smallholder perceptions would provide local and time specific information on the constraints and solutions to smallholder market participation; (ii) wealth status and wealth-ranking factors were positively related to market participation where agriculture was the main economic activity as in southern Niassa; (iii) labour aspects such as crop labour requirements (CLR) could be negatively related, while available household labour (AHL) and the ratio AHL/CLR could be positively related to smallholders cultivation of cash crops and subsequent participation in agricultural markets; and (iv) aspects of profitability and indicators could be used to predict smallholder cash crop preferences. Data for this study were collected in Cuamba district of Mozambique from nine focus group discussions (FGDs) with community leaders, 287 household-head questionnaires and staff interviews during September 2002. Nine villages were randomly selected. The leaders' FGDs provided the criteria utilised to rank households according to wealth status and much of the qualitative information of this study. The wealth-ranking tool was used to identify and analyse the socio-economic factors that influenced smallholder market participation. A follow-up interview of managers of promoting institutions also provided greater insight on some aspects raised by smallholders. The study employed (i) descriptive statistics such as means and frequencies; (ii) correlation analysis and standard scores (iii) qualitative analysis was also used for some wealth-ranking, perceived labour demand and aspects of profitability influencing cash crop cultivation, preference and market participation based on information from FGD, farmers and staff; and (iv) simple mathematical expressions for analysis and interpretation of the research findings. This study relied on perceptions, knowledge and experience of smallholders, leaders and leaders of promoting institutions. Smallholder-suggested factors and strategies were in line with the limitations of socio-economic characteristics such as low effective household labour, particularly for females. These strategies included an improvement in outputs and inputs markets, agricultural services and credit at a subsidised prices or low interest rates. Other strategies for improving smallholders' participation in agricultural markets included promotion of profitable cash crops, household food security, provision of extension support services and information about cultivation and agricultural markets. However, smallholders did not identify some factors that have been acknowledged to influence agricultural market participation: ecological and natural resources, policies, institutional infrastructures and physical infrastructures. Smallholders also did not mention socio-economic factors (except household labour) as influencing their decisions to participate in agricultural markets in spite of the fact that researchers assume these factors in almost every study on smallholder market participation. The findings of this research confirmed that a wealth-ranking tool could be used to identify the socio-economic factors affecting smallholders' participation in agricultural markets. The identified wealth-ranking factors such as labour, livestock number, implements and bicycles significantly correlated with wealth status and subsequently to smallholder agricultural market participation. Conversely, household socio-economic characteristics not indicated as wealth-ranking factors such as age and gender related poorly to market participation. The wealth-ranking tool could also be used to identify strategies for improving smallholder participation in agricultural markets, and to evaluate an agricultural market development programme. The study found that, other factors being held constant, CLRs were negatively related to market participation. Weeding was the most labour intensive operation followed by harvesting, soil preparation, transportation, land clearing and seedling preparation. It also found that AHL and the ratio AHL/CLR were positive and significantly related to market participation. The ratio AHL/CLR together with household consumption requirements and yield were used to estimate the total area a household could cultivate, both for food crops for consumption and for cash crops; the proportion of farmers likely to participate in the market; and those unable to cultivate enough for consumption. The research also confirmed that profitability-related aspects correlated to cash crop preferences. Yield was the most important factor that influenced smallholders' preference for cash crops. It was also found that indicators incorporating more aspects of profitability correlated strongly with cash crop preferences. The correlation increased as more aspects were incorporated. A crop, such as tobacco, with a profit of more than twice the profit for food cash crops was preferred more than food cash crops. The indicators and underlying aspects of profitability were used to interpret the current and projected cash crop preference. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2005.

HIV/AIDS is an epidemic that is in one way or another affecting humankind and particularly the African continent. Due to its devastating nature, many strategies and interventions are being employed at different levels and by different groups of people to fight it. Evaluation has been a component of these projects, but few have been subjected to systematic monitoring and evaluation that provides a foundation for the development and implementation of further projects. This is partly due to the fact that project implementation and evaluation can be rendered complex by several factors, such as the choice of methodologies, donor satisfaction and the very nature of interventions and evaluations themselves. Taking a situation where the aim of a project and its evaluation is to bring about social change, as is the case with many HIV/AIDS interventions, this study sought to investigate approaches that could be considered meaningful, useful and valuable. In order to carry out the investigation of this study, the approach taken was an in-depth analysis of a few cases (in anticipation of greater achievement of insight), rather than broader survey types of perspectives. The study also concentrated on a review of the literature and on validation of documentary and interview evidence provided by beneficiaries, managerial staff and evaluators of communication-based HIV/AIDS. Results of the study highlighted the fact that community-based factors, such as education, poverty, culture, beliefs, gender, crime and age, influenced social change (with respect to HIV/AIDS) in varying ways and depending on the communities concerned. The different ways in which these factors influenced social change within specific communities were noted to have implications on interventions dealing with them. As such, an in-depth assessment of these different ways with respect to specific groups of people was encouraged in order to have a meaningful, useful and valuable HIV/AIDS intervention. The theory of active participation of targeted communities was also propagated in an HIV/AIDS intervention. It was noted that when active participation is encouraged in a project at both implementation and evaluation, taking the example of an HIV/AIDS project that intended achieving group knowledge acquisition, awareness, attitude change, skills acquisition, effective functioning and sustainability, such participation would contribute to: • Override to a great extent, limitations arising from socio-demographic differences (project locations and gender, language, age and race of implementers, evaluators and beneficiaries), in the attainment of project objectives. • Override to a great extent, limitations arising from differences in forms of evaluation (internal versus external evaluators), in the assessment of project objectives. • Create an enabling environment for higher attainment of project objectives in comparison to a situation where active participation is encouraged only at implementation (and not at evaluation). It was further discovered from this study that when beneficiaries are excluded from participating in the planning, action-planning and result-feedback stages of a project and its evaluation, dissatisfaction is experienced on the part of these beneficiaries as well as missed opportunities for useful contributions. The degree and quality of beneficiary involvement in project implementation and evaluation was seen to generate beneficiary excitement and a general sense of project acceptance: all of which was noted to create an enabling environment for the making of proper choices and decisions. Finally, difficulty in accessing traditional evaluations and people's feeling of shame and ineffectiveness was noted in the work (in the area of collecting data pertaining to traditional evaluation). This pointed to possible compromise of meaningfulness, usefulness and value of traditional evaluations. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2004.

Biogas has the potential to provide energy to communities, especially those where grid electrification will not be installed for a long time and who experience problems in accessing energy resources. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether biogas technology could provide households and a school with an acceptable, affordable, efficient, and sustainable alternative energy resource, thereby providing opportunities for cost savings, reduction of the labour burden and income generation. Three case studies were selected, two households and Myeka High School in rural Maphephetheni. Maphephetheni is situated approximately 80 km west of Durban and is characterised by the lack of grid electrification. The two households selected as case studies were both using firewood and paraffin for thermal energy. Collection of firewood was a tiresome burden to women and paraffin was expensive to purchase. The third case study, Myeka High School was using solar energy and LP gas to support its energy needs. Biogas digesters were donated to the two households and the school. Data before and after installation of biogas was collected through questionnaires, informal interviews and observations. Monitoring and evaluation of the case studies was carried out. Results collected revealed that biogas was an acceptable source of energy because the household and school equipped with the floating dome biogas digesters accepted cooking on biogas while the household used the fertiliser from biogas on their crops. However it was not affordable both to the household and the school because in the household income did not allow for its purchase while savings on energy expenditure from both the school and household could not offset the cost in the six years estimated by the engineer but it would take 11 years. Biogas was found to be efficient and sustainable provided proper management was available. Although income generation opportunities were not fully utilised, there was an opportunity for income generation through the biogas provided there was encouragement, support and markets available. Recommendations are that government policy should provide for training of stakeholders on proper management techniques. Government or organisations involved with biogas energy could do this, as well as provide an extension service for the dissemination of biogas and other renewable energy information. However, government policy should as in other countries provide for subsidies, risk underwritten bank loans or tax incentives to manufacturers. / Thesis (M.Soc.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2003.

Are South Africa's water service delivery policies and strategies equitable, accessible, affordable, efficient, effective and sustainable for Msunduzi low-income households? The primary objective of this study was to elicit the community experience of South Africa's water service delivery policies and strategies and link these experiences to a broader analysis of policy and strategy to locate water service delivery contraventions, inconsistencies and inadequacies. The secondary objective was to initiate community-based platforms for engagement with water-related issues and build capacity within local community task teams to initiate lobbying and advocacy strategies to support community-suggested and research-outcome reforms thereby returning popular control to the locus of communities. The study was conducted in KwaZulu-Natal, within the Msunduzi municipal jurisdiction, under the uMgungundlovu district municipality (DC22) in the period from October 2002-April 2003. Households in five low-income urban areas were included in the study: Imbali (units 1 and 2), Sobantu, Haniville and Thembalihle. The study employed a community action research design using non-probability sampling. Surveys, conducted by community researchers, were complemented by broad community engagement approaches, informal interviews with external stakeholders and the initiation of platforms for information sharing and fundamental debate. The study revealed two significant findings. The first finding found that South Africa's water service delivery policies, strategies and implementation mechanisms were inconsistent with the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry's sector goals of equity, affordability, efficiency, effectiveness and sustainability. They contained serious scientific and social inadequacies, inequitably promoted economic considerations above social and environmental considerations; lacked regulation and monitoring systems to identify and address implementation contraventions; were not receptive to the socioeconomic situations of low-income households and should be fundamentally re-worked. Policies and strategies purported to ensure that the basic water service requirements of low-income households were met, essentially compounded socio-economic constraints and compromised human rights, justice and equity. The second finding was related to popular involvement and engagement. Community consultative processes for input into local and national policies and strategies were inadequate and often pseudoparticipatory; political platforms (local and national) for communities to engage and influence decision-makers were inadequate or lacking; and the community control, ownership and acceptance of the Msunduzi water service delivery institution and its mechanisms were low. Recommendations for the reform of policy, strategy and implementation of such reforms were advocated through the vehicle of reviews, evaluations and audits, to inform the necessary amendments, adjustments and intensification of local and national regulation and monitoring mechanisms. Lobbying and advocacy strategies, to support the implementation of reforms, were promoted through community-based approaches of popular engagement with water-related issues, information dissemination; community mobilisation and popular control of public processes. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2003.

The purpose of this study was to examine aspects of rural local governance within the democratic local government system in the Umgungundlovu, Umzinyathi, Uthukela and Amajuba districts of KwaZulu-Natal. This study could feed into the management and policy making systems of the Department of Local Government and Traditional Affairs of the Province. It would also inform a practical traditional administration centre model. It also intends to provoke a debate on issues of rural local governance in particular within the democratic local government system in South Africa. The study looked at the evolution of the institution of traditional leadership over the years. Policy issues with regard to the functioning and structuring of traditional leadership institutions in local governance were used as a basis for this discussion. Different items of legislation relating to local government and traditional leadership in South Africa generally and in KwaZulu-Natal in particular were analysed to give insight into the issues of rural local governance. It was found that traditional leaders have always worked hand in hand with government and that the government has and still is making deliberate efforts to keep traditional leadership under its control by paying their salaries and controlling all processes and systems in the functioning of traditional authorities. National and Provincial policies were found to be giving government (both National and Provincial) too much discretionary powers regarding the roles and functions of traditional leaders. The KwaZulu-Natal Department of Local Government and Traditional Affairs (DLGTA) had transformed tribal courts into Traditional Administration Centres (TACs) in line with the government's call to bring government services closer to the people. There are sixty four TACs in the Umgungundlovu, Umzinyathi, Uthukela and Amajuba districts of KwaZulu-Natal. This study reviews the level of functionality of these TACs over a period of 6 months. The activities of all TACs were monitored and recorded daily for the duration of the study. The study revealed that the TACs were generally not being used to their full potential. A combination of well equipped centres coupled with motivated and committed support staff is crucial for the effective functioning of TACs. The study also looked at different community centre models and compared them with the traditional administration centre model to help develop a practical traditional administration centre model. The study further recommends that TACs be linked to the Multipurpose Community Centres (MPCCs) either as extensions or satellites thereof. In terms of ownership, it is recommended that TACs be handed over to the local municipalities in order to ensure proper maintenance and sustainability thereof. As part of rural local governance, the study also investigated synergistic partnerships between the institution of traditional leadership and municipalities. This was done through focus group discussions with government officials, traditional councils, municipal councillors and community members. The focus group discussions also revealed the level of understanding on the roles of traditional councils and municipal councillors by different groupings i.e. government officials, traditional councils, municipal councillors and community members. The study concludes that conflict between traditional leaders and municipal councillors is inevitable and that it is difficult but not impossible to form functional linkages between the two. South Africa has seen remarkable improvements in the transformation of the institution of traditional leadership in terms of composition, functions and legal manifestations. There is a reasonable understanding on the roles of municipal councillors but traditional councils seemed not to be clear about their roles and policy issues in general. Many subjects believed that direct intervention by National and Provincial governments was desirable if sound local governance was to be attained. The study also recommends that agency agreements be entered into between traditional councils and municipalities and between traditional councils and provincial governments to allow traditional councils to perform certain functions on behalf of government departments and municipalities. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2008.

Persistent poverty, social and economic inequalities are some of the challenges in the process of national development efforts targeted in the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Yet in South Africa, poverty, hunger, social and economic inequalities are still on the increase especially among poor rural to urban migrants. Because of severe poverty in rural areas, large populations of rural poor migrate to urban areas in search of better life. However, the growing energy needs in the urban areas where these people settle and their use of inefficient energy technologies negatively impact on the balance of environmental resources on which their socio-economic development depends. Efficient, affordable and environmental friendly technologies are therefore vital for improving the livelihood conditions and protecting the much needed environmental resources of the country. On the contrary, current practices presently dominating energy provision issues in South Africa are insufficient to solve the problems of socio-economic inequalities, especially for the increasing urban poor population. In addition, they are also failing to protect the environment and natural resources. Electrification of poor urban and peri-urban areas by both grid and off-grid systems through the top-down development practice is doing very little to change the socio-economic conditions of the poor section of the population in the country. Likewise, the provision of modern energy through public sector agencies such as Eskom is inadequate and inappropriate for the rapidly expanding urban and peri-urban poor areas in the country. One major reason that hinders provision of such services to the overcrowded consumer population in these areas is the massive capital investment required and inability to pay electricity bills by urban poor households. Against the above background, this study examined the use of improved wood stoves in two peri-urban areas (Umsilinga and Isnathing) in Pietermaritzburg, South Africa as an alternative modern energy technology on how they would socio-economically benefit the peri-urban poor. It looked at the following: The efficiency of four improved wood stoves (Yamampera, Simunye, Household Rocket and Vesto) in comparison with the three stone open fire, The impact of the efficient burning of the four improved stoves, Factors influencing consumers in choosing a specific energy technology to use, The effectiveness of the improved wood stoves placed in 24 peri-urban households and observed for the specified period, and Additional potentials of such stoves to other prospective users. The key finding of this research is that the use of these improved wood stoves could play a pivital role in household economic growth and improving livelihoods. Participants ranked smokeless burning, low selling price, fuelwood saving and light weight of the stoves as priority preferences for using these stoves. Speed of cooking and less constant attention to the fire were also ranked as important preferences. From women participants view point, the low selling price of the stoves and their considerable fuel saving would reduce strain on the household investment capital, household indoor pollution and tedious work of women’s fuelwood collection. Low investment costs in acquiring the stoves would encourage women’s participation as entrepreneurs in modern energy technologies. However, results from focused group discussions and observations of usage of stoves that were placed in 24 homes showed that the incorporation of consumer preferences in the design of improved wood stoves would be key. This would enable stoves to adequately meet the energy needs of targeted users and be used frequently as an alternative energy solution by both urban and peri-urban poor who are currently lacking electricity and suffering from energy poverty. / Thesis (M.Soc.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermarizburg, 2009.

In many cases rural crafters have had only limited exposure to the market economy and have little understanding of how it works. If the crafters are unable to market their products, then their efforts in making craft items are being wasted. It was for this reason that this study was undertaken. The study focused on indigenous handcraft (beadwork, basketry and leatherwork) owing to the fact that these kinds of crafts are widely produced in the area of Izinqoleni. The purpose of this study was to investigate the marketing opportunities of indigenous handcrafts, and highlight problems faced by crafters in Izinqoleni. To accomplish this, the study had to describe the productive functioning of individuals and group producers of indigenous handcraft, find out about the kinds of craft items produced, and understand what was required to produce crafts in sufficient quantities and appropriate quality for markets. It also had to identify such suitable markets and describe the market places in relation to access, requirements, and potential for economic returns of crafters, to identify the gaps in the relationships between present production by crafters and marketing requirements, identify the constraints on crafters and markets, and recommend remedial actions that need to be taken. For this study, in-depth interviews, focus group discussions, and personal observations were employed to obtain information. The target population of this study comprised of the individuals and group crafters, craft traders (formal and informal traders such as art and craft galleries, craft shops, farm stalls, Tourism Information Centre, beach/road side craft sellers) as well as the buyers of indigenous handcrafts (schools and Shembe religious groups). Ten individual crafters, two craft groups, seven informal craft traders, four formal craft traders, two schools and two Shembe groups participated in this study. The findings of this study indicated that, despite the constraints facing the crafters in Izinqoleni; both the individual and group crafters had great potential for producing marketable products, although groups had better opportunities in term of exposure to markets and other requirements than individuals. There was not a big difference between the craft items that were produced by the crafters of Izinqoleni and those that were available at the local craft outlets. The traders, however, did not obtain their goods from local crafters; they depended on the distant crafters for supply of indigenous handcrafts. Therefore, they were very positive in creating strong relationships with the local crafters, provided they conformed to the requirements of these markets. It was therefore recommended that the crafters form cooperatives so that they could become recognized and then be supported in every possible way. The Government policies should consider indigenous handcraft as a major contributor to the economy, and promote indigenous handcraft production and marketing by providing sufficient support and services. / Thesis (M.Sc)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2006.

Though Botswana is regarded as one of the richer countries in Africa, it is faced with challenges experienced by other developing countries in Sub-Saharan Africa such as poverty, unemployment and HIV/AIDS. Recession in the mining and agriculture sectors, which have been the pillars of the country's wealth, has caused the economy to decline. The National Development Plan 9 (NDP 9 2003/4-2008/9) is a five year national development plan for Botswana that states that 36.7% of the populace have incomes below the poverty datum line. Entrenched in the nation's Vision 2016 statement are two development goals aimed at poverty reduction; to create sustainable jobs and to develop human resources. The Botswana government has thus earmarked the promotion of small, medium and micro-enterprises as one of the measures to reduce poverty. This shift to self-employment would help create much needed jobs, contribute to the economy and improve the quality of life of the Batswana. The government's efforts alone will not suffice in this predicament. It needs the assistance of all stakeholders including the private sector and the general public. The purpose of the study was to investigate whether the Junior Achievement Botswana Programme is an effective programme for equipping the youth in Botswana with business skills with the hope that they would in turn establish businesses in their communities. The study focused on exploring the perceptions of the trainees/learners in the programme to establish if they felt that the training gave them the necessary knowledge and skills to boost their confidence and motivation to plan, start up and sustain business ventures. The perceptions of teachers and trainers involved in the delivery of the programme were also sought to establish the programme's strengths and challenges and to suggest how the programme could be improved. The study also employed an entrepreneurial test to determine whether the programme attracted teachers and students who have the desired characteristics for business. At the heart of this study was an attempt to articulate the role of education and training in preparing the youth for self-employment. Data was collected using both quantitative and qualitative data collection strategies. The data was analysed descriptively as well deriving themes and meanings. The study found out that the JAB is a good and informative programme that inspires the youth and instils confidence in them to believe that they have gained knowledge and skills required to be engaged in viable business ventures. They felt particularly confident about market research, production and marketing components of running businesses. However, the study also found out that the programme has deficiencies such as insufficient preparation of its trainees to access and manage finances, inability to develop networks for support especially once the students have left schools and are no longer under the comforting guidance of the programme facilitators. In addition, the study realised that the programme seems to overlook the role of monitoring, follow up, evaluation, networking and mentoring in training for entrepreneurship. Issues pertaining to partnerships and public relations also surfaced in the study. On the whole, the respondents in the study found the programme enjoyable and worthwhile and wished it could be extended to many others. The study also found that the desired characteristics for business as identified by the entrepreneurship test administered were possessed by fewer than 20 percent of the students and teachers. This may also have contributed to the low numbers of people who went on to start their own businesses. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2006.

The purpose of this study was to investigate coping strategies employed by low-income households of Sweetwaters KwaZulu-Natal, who have members who are infected with HIV in ensuring food security when dealing with HIV/AIDS. This study was based on households who have members living openly with HIV/AIDS and who were members of a support group of HIV positive people. This study was conducted between July 2003 and June 2004. Focus group meetings were conducted with a support group of 26 members (Philani Support Group). Questionnaires, group discussions and observations were used to collect data from households. In order for the study to investigate coping strategies, the following sub-problems were investigated to measure changes before and after illness or death in household: changes in finances, changes in food habits, social aspect of studied household which included infrastructure (housing, roads, water, sanitation and energy); external and internal support. There were no major differences in coping strategies, but the structure, resources and size of households informed their coping strategies. Food was the centre of all activities of households. As the ability of the household to produce food or earn income decreased, the need for food increased. Government social grants have been shown to be the main resource for coping (they enabled households to cope or survive). It is recommended that low-income households affected by HIV/AIDS and totally dependent on grants should be helped not to develop a dependency syndrome by implementing strategies that will encourage active participation and deal with passiveness that exists within low-income households of Sweetwaters affected by HIV/AIDS. As this study indicates that there are no resources on which concerned households depend, it suggests a greater need for capital to boost the household and strategies for households to be able to sustain themselves. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2005.

The Botswana National Literacy Programme (BNLP) was officially launched in 1981 as a major adult literacy initiative. Literacy was in this case defined as reading, writing and calculating. However, experience over the years of implementation showed that provision of the 3Rs is not enough but literacy needs to be made functional in order to be useful to the learners in their daily lives. Income generating projects were therefore introduced to the National literacy programme as a way of making literacy functional. It has been realized however that the BNLP supported income generating projects are failing or not doing well. The aim of this study was therefore to investigate the performance of income generating projects supported by BNLP in relation to projects meeting member' objectives, group dynamics, economic growth, members' health status, commitment to the projects, use of literacy skills in running the projects, conducting feasibility studies before embarking on income-generating projects, business management, availability of start up finance and follow up. Hypotheses of this study stated that the BNLP-supported income generating projects are failing because of projects not satisfying members' needs, group disputes among group members, lack of growth, ill health lack of members' commitment to the projects, inappropriate literacy curriculum, inadequate feasibility studies before starting the projects, business management, lack of finance and lack of follow up after training. The methodologies used for this study were participatory and survey research. Qualitative strategies were employed using focus group discussions, force field analysis, observations and questionnaires. Stratified random sampling, was employed to select the sampled population often operating and ten non-operating income-generating projects in the South East, Southern and Northern regions of Botswana. Purposive sampling was employed to select all twelve trainers of the income generating projects within the same regions. The results of this study were analysed using SPSS 11.5, and manual inspection. The results of this study supported this hypothesis to a great extent in that causes of failure of the projects were because the personal objectives of project members were not met, there was a problem of group disputes among members, ill health of some members was affecting their production, literacy skills learnt in literacy and income generating skills provided by BNLP were not adequate to be used in the running of the project and business skills are taught separately from the basic literacy skills of reading and writing and numeracy. Feasibility studies were not conducted before embarking on income generating projects and there was mismanagement of the projects. Inadequate follow up was also seen to be one of the contributory factors to the failure of projects. Hypothesis of this study was also partially rejected in a sense that, the results showed that almost all the projects received some grants to start their projects and therefore start up finances were not a problem but rather a problem of shortage of funds for expansion, Lack of ensuring sustainability of projects was due to mismanagement of the funds by the office bearers and mostly LGLs. Recommendations of this study directed to income generating-project members included settling group disputes, conducting feasibility studies, embarking on relevant projects individually or as groups. Policy recommendations included support of individual and group projects, running a pilot project where appropriate literacy needs of the piloted projects will be provided, involvement of the participants in decision-making concerning their projects and curriculum. The policy recommendation included ensuring that funds are only given to viable projects and literacy curriculum is relevant to the running of income generating projects to ensure sustainability. Recommendations for further studies included BNLP conducting an in-depth study to establish the prospects and problems of group approach in income generating activities, investigate the level of skills that the BNLP supported income-generating projects and their trainers possess and their specific needs for skills development and lastly evaluate the training materials used in both literacy classes and income-generation training to get more insight on what is lacking, and how this could be improved. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2006.