Community Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) programmes are implemented to ensure sustainable use and protection of the environment through appropriate capacity enhancement and empowerment mechanisms. CBNRM is an approach that has multiple objectives, such as enhancing the capacity, of communities to manage resources sustainably, and creating employment opportunities to enhance livelihoods of the communities. CBNRM programmes are implemented in South Africa by different government departments and organisations to achieve these objectives. Despite such interventions, communities often display insufficient knowledge and capacity necessary for effective participation in addressing natural resource management issues. The main objective of this study was to establish the effect of a CBNRM programme on the capacity of the KwaPitela community to manage natural resources for sustainable use. To address the main objective of this study, three sub-objectives were identified: firstly, to determine the community members’ ability to apply skills and knowledge in the management of natural resources for sustainable use; secondly to determine the community’s ability to participate with different stakeholders in the management of natural resources; and thirdly determine the community’s ability to make decisions about the management of natural resources for sustainable use. A basic qualitative research design was used and data collection methods included semi-structured interviews and focus group discussions. Selected documents were analysed to confirm specific aspects of the qualitative data. The participants of this study were the KwaPitela development committee, members of the community, and stakeholders mandated to equip the KwaPitela community in CBNRM competencies. Regarding the first sub-objective it was evident that the development committee can apply planning, networking, and leadership skills as a result of the CBNRM programme. The development committee and members involved in the harvesting of natural resources displayed knowledge related to invasive alien species, legislative processes, and the importance of natural resources as an essential for their livelihood. These skills and knowledge were, however, not applied by the community members who were not involved in natural resource management and leadership processes. The development committee and members of the community are still in need of further skills and knowledge, for example entrepreneurship skills and knowledge on how to sustain projects, in order to successfully implement the land use management plan, as developed during the CBNRM programme. Meeting the second sub-objective, it was evident that the development committee had the capability to facilitate participation with stakeholders, but the development committee felt that they were not getting enough support from the stakeholders. In assessing the third subobjective, it became evident that the development committee was able to make well - informed decisions in natural resource management, but they lacked the ability to influence and implement the decisions taken. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2010.

The objectives of the study were to examine the socio-economic impact of outsourcing on forest-dependent communities, to evaluate the current outsourcing management system in Mondi Forests, and to assess the financial impact (costs savings) of outsourcing on Mondi Forests: Natal Region in KwaZulu-Natal. Participatory Rural Appraisal exercises were used to assess the socio-economic impact of outsourcing on forest-dependent communities. A questionnaire was then used on a sample of Mondi Forests personnel to evaluate the current outsourcing management system in Mondi Forests. Finally, cash-flow trends were used to assess the financial impact (costs savings) of outsourcing on Mondi Forests, Natal Region. Activities that have been outsourced include transport, harvesting operations, silviculture operations, security services, mechanical services, training, payroll services and information systems. Results show that outsourcing has impacted negatively on the livelihoods of some of the forest-dependent communities sampled. The negative impacts are mainly associated with a reduction in hygiene services offered to these communities and an increase in unemployment in some of these villages. Forest-dependent communities perceive outsourcing as the cause of poor relationship between the rural communities, forest companies and contractors as well as being the cause of high unemployment rates. Mondi Forests' personnel perceive that outsourcing goes beyond costs savings to include redirecting scarce resources toward core business activities. Lower morale and insecurity among forest staff members and negative views of the forestry companies by rural communities, unions and government departments were perceived as the disadvantages of outsourcing. Uncertainty with regards to employment continuity and social problems (e.g. increased forest fires, poor relationship with local communities) were perceived as outsourcing risks. Results show that Mondi Forests has implemented a number of strategies in order to reduce some of these risks and disadvantages by giving preference to their ex-employees when offering contracts, by providing start-up capital to emerging black contractors, and by initiating community development programmes in order to uplift the standard of living of the forest-dependent communities. Mondi Forests' personnel suggested that forest management. accounting, conservation management, and human resources are the best candidates for future outsourcing, since most other forest organizations in the world are already outsourcing them successfully. Most of these activities are still kept in-house in Mondi Forests. Results also show that outsourcing can be used with other rationalization methods to save costs. This is because costs savings in Mondi Forests: Natal Region, since 1998 to 2001 were .not only due to outsourcing, but also to some other management decisions such as reduced fertilizer and pesticides use. The total costs savings were R14.5 million from 1998 to 2001. Results support the need to strengthen the current rural development programmes in Mondi Forests, and to the establish Community Liaison Forums to improve communication with rural communities and to start community development programmes. A contractor upliftment programme was also recommended for developing the emerging black contractors. Lastly, company/contractor agreements must be reviewed in order to ensure that social responsibility aspects are appropriately managed. Outsourcing relationships need to consider the economic, environmental and social effects in order to be sustainable. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2001.

The use of remotely sensed data to estimate forest attributes involves the acquisition of ground forest data. Recently the acquisition of ground data (field based) to estimate leaf area index (LAI) and biomass are becoming expensive and time consuming. Thus there is a need for an easy but yet effective means of predicting the LAI, which serves as an input to the forest growth prediction models and the quantification of water use by forests. The ability to predict LAI, biomass and eventually water use over a large area remotely using remotely sensed data is sought after by the forestry companies. Remotely sensed LAI values provide the opportunity to gain spatial information on plant biophysical attributes that can be used in spatial growth indices and process based growth models. In this study remotely sensed images were transformed into LAI value estimates, through the use of four vegetation indices (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), Corrected Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVlc), Ratio Vegetation Index (RVI) and Normalized Ratio Vegetation Index (NRVI). Ground based measurements (Destructive Sampling and Leaf Canopy Analyzer) relating to LAI were obtained in order to evaluate the vegetation indices value estimates. All four vegetation indices values correlated significantly with the ground-based measurements, with the NDVI correlating the highest. These results suggested that NDVI is the best in estimating the LAI in Eucalyptus grandis x camaldulensis in the Zululand region with correlation coefficients of 0.78 for destructive sampling and 0.75 for leaf canopy analyzer. Visual inspection of scatter plots suggested that the relations between NDVI and ground based measurements were variable, with R2 values of 0.61 for destructive sampling and 0.55 for Leaf Canopy analyzer. These LAI estimates obtained through remotely sense data showed a great promise in South African estimation of LAI values of Eucalyptus grandis x camaldulensis. Thus water use and biomass can be quantified at a less expensive and time-consuming rate but yet efficiently and effectively. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2001.

The main objective oft his dissertation was to identify the causes of the rise of the tick population in KwaZulu-Natal in 1999. After 100 years of intensive chemical tick control, tick numbers remain high and the stock losses caused by tick borne diseases are still significant. In South Africa legislation was introduced to support intensive chemical tick control. Ticks have consistently shown themselves to possess a genetic pool containing the potential to resist a wide range of chemical poisons. The introduction of new chemicals followed by widespread use, has often resulted in the appearance of a tick population resistant to those chemicals. The problem is compounded by the fact that some farmers are also found to be helping ticks to multiply by not following instructions given by the chemical industry on how to use dips. Chemicals which are used to control ticks are also beyond the financial means of many cattle owners especially in resource- poor communities. Apart from the high cost of intensive tick control, the chemicals that are used to destroy ticks are very poisonous, not only to ticks but to the birds which are natural predators of ticks. The negative effects of these chemicals on the environment combined with the high cost of tick control has forced a revision of intensive chemical tick control strategy. There is now a shift to use methods of tick control which are friendly to the environment and affordable to the resource-poor communities. This dissertation provides a historical overview of the problem in KwaZulu-Natal and recommendations on how to deal with the problem in future. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2001.

Migration from rural to urban areas has characterized the South African population in the last quarter of the 20th century. More recently, internal urban growth itself has contributed to the rapid growth of cities. This rapid population increase in towns and cities has resulted in a range of social and environmental problems. Food insecurity is one such problem, it is contended, that could be addressed by the more wide spread development of urban agriculture (UA). The literature review helped the researcher to understand the problems and potential of UA. For the purposes of this study , UA is defined as the growing of plants , tree crops and raising of livestock within and at peri-urban areas. It focuses specifically on the 'community' type ventures rather than that associated with individual households. UA is an effective and efficient way of converting urban waste land and underutilized resources into food products , generate income and create jobs . The literature review and the case studies underlined the importance of UA to supplement household income and address issue of food security. However, the activity has been largely overlooked by local government, policy makers and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). It was also realized that UA is not a widespread or common practice in the cities of South Africa although the majority of the urban populations are poor due to past apartheid policy, rapid urbanization and the relatively slow growth of the economy as a whole. Against the above background, this study focused on socio-economic analysis of vegetable production in the study area by identifying and examining the role played and potential socio-economic and environmental importance of UA in the Greater Edendale Area (GEA). The study was conducted in the GEA particularly in three vegetable gardens, namely, the African Tree Centre (ATC), the Edendale Lay Ecumenical Centre (ELEC) and the Willow Fountain Centre (WFC). Primary data were collected through using structured interviews, key informant interviews , personal observation and through a literature review and the consultation of documents and records from the organizations surveyed. Agricultural activities in general and UA in particular in the study area were limited. Production at present is also low. However, the production of vegetables and fruits and the raising of poultry do relatively well when compared to other UA activities. Very few people in the study area were practising UA because of the lack of suitable land set aside for the purpose, lack of equipment and lack of financial and technical support. The initial cost of starting community based UA was found to be high. This situation has limited the number of urban farmers. If people are able to meet the start up costs, they can provide the urban poor with fresh and affordable produce. ln addition, the lack of information and awareness, in relation to the actual and potential benefit of UA, has limited its spread in the study area. It is also possible to optimize the capacity of UA with limited inputs. High production per hectare is possible and is well suited to low-income families and it allows women, who constitute the majority of urban farmers, to participate. The young, the old and the unemployed are other potential beneficiaries. However, lack of recognition, and cultural biases (i.e, many urban managers and policy makers think that allowing UA in cities 'ruralises' them of its activities hinder the realization of the potential role of UA. Therefore, integration of UAin the plans, policies and activities of stakeholders, particularly urban planners, city administrations, NGOs, local universities, extension and credit organizations, and community based organizations (CBOs) should be a priority issue. Strategies to ensure a higher priority for UA need to be carefully articulated. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2000.

Some of the problems experienced with regard to community participation in the Community Based Public Works Program in its first phase(from 1994to 1997) included: participatory processes were determined externally; there was uncertainty of roles and responsibilities; there was lack of clarity on the decision-making process which caused conflict. there were constraints in terms of sufficient resources, capacity and information; there was a lack of clear definition of rights and processes to address concerns raised in the participation process; unequal power relationships effected the negotiation process; and there was a lack of ongoing participatory monitoring and evaluation. Participation also had significant costs which went beyond financial in terms of time and the costs of changing attitudes and traditional ways of working. These were some of the conclusions of this dissertation which is a critical analysis of the nature and extent of the community participation process in public works programmes in South Africa. The Community Based Public Works Program (CBPWP) a post apartheid. government-funded programme that targeted "the poorest of the poor" and used labour intensive construction methods and community labour in the building of infrastructure was used as a case study to conduct this critical analysis. The aims of the CBPWP were to address infrastructure shortages, create jobs, provide training and build the capacity of communities to contribute to the development process. This dissertation includes a review of literature and theory of community participation, which finds that: participation needs to be considered in the context of its relationship with the internal development process; successful participation depends so much on the adequate provision of information, access to resources and understanding of local level dynamics; and that participation can be both a means (to improve project performance) and an end (to empower communities to participate in their own development); that it is not without costs and that the nature and type of community participation varies from purely information sharing, through consultation, decision-making and the initiation of action. This report also includes a background to public works programmes and their context internationally and locally. Public works programmes are multi-purpose and range from strategic, long-term economic interventions to emergency relief programmes. They are essentially instruments through which public spending can be directed towards the poor and range from community-based, labour-intensive infrastructure building programmes to programmes to address natural resource management goals. In post-apartheid context of South Africa in the 1990s they are intrinsically tied to transformation and reconstruction and incorporate objectives ofthe empowerment ofcommunities in the development process and the transformation of development institutions and top-down development processes. Many of these programmes in South Africa including the CBPWP recognise community participation in particular as an essential component of meeting their objectives. This dissertation builds a profile of community level stakeholders in the CBPWP and examines how these stakeholders interact with the CBPWP at each stage ofa typical project. Data from two broad evaluations ofthe CBPWP (conducted by (i) CASE and the ILO and (ii) by SALDRU and described in Chapter 5 of this report) is interrogated to do this. Research findings are then analysed (according to key research questions outlined in Section 1.5) and summarised in terms of: how communities participate in the CBPWP; what their incentives for participation are; whether they are provided with sufficient information and resources to participate effectively; who takes responsibility for ongoing community participation; a cost benefit analysis of participation for the various stakeholders; how participation should be measured and, finally, identifies important issues which need to be considered in the design, implementation and monitoring of community participation processes in development programmes. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2000.

Land transformation in the Karkloof Catchment (KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa) between 1944 and 1999 was examined. No research had previously been undertaken to quantify and obtain an understanding of these changes and their effect on the landscape. The study provides a valuable spatial and descriptive database, which could assist in future planning and in an improved management of the catchment. Land category maps and associated databases for 1944 and 1999 were produced by interpreting 1944 and 1996 aerial photographs and using a Geographical Information System (GIS). Land management changes were established primarily by interviews with land-owners. Property ownership and extent were ascertained and mapped in GIS by utilising and adapting existing GIS databases, by interviews with land-owners, and by undertaking title deed searches and by analysis of property Grant outlines and diagrams. Natural grasslands have decreased significantly, being lost mostly to exotic afforestation and marginally to commercial cultivation. Forest and woodland have increased marginally, as has exotic vegetation. Subsistence cultivation has been reduced significantly with very little being undertaken in 1999. Farm dams have increased in number and size. Extraction of indigenous timber from the Karkloof Forest has ceased. Soil erosion, which was determined by summing the surface area of soil erosion gullies (bare soil area), has decreased. Property numbers have increased, whilst property sizes have decreased. Ownership has moved away from the predominantly 'Private Individual' ownership category towards 'Private Companies and Trusts' and towards large corporate companies. Reduction in farm size has contributed to maximisation of land use, which has often impacted negatively on natural resources. Land-owners are however becoming more environmentally conscious. More sustainable farming methods are being practised. Catchment management bodies have been established. Traditional land use types such as agriculture are slowly declining, whilst recreational, residential and tourism ventures are on the increase. Demand for land and its products will continue to increase and more pressure will be exerted on natural resources. Ways to live with nature, sensitively balancing development against the environment will need to be found. Recommendations have been made regarding the further application of the study, particularly the GIS database, catchment management bodies and integrated catchment management, property size and land use types. Various conservation recommendations are also given. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2000.

Since the establishment of a democratic South Africa in 1994, a number of rural water supply schemes have been implemented. A specific aim of these schemes is to improve the health of the population. The underlying assumption is that a supply of reticulated water will improve the quality of water used by the community, reduce the exposure of the community to contaminated water supplies, and reduce water related diseases, in particular diarrhoea. This research thesis focuses on two rural water supply schemes in KwaZulu-Natal: Mpolweni and Vulindlela, both being developed by Umgeni Water, the regional water utility. These communities depended variously on rivers, rain harvesting, and springs for their water supply. For sanitation, the majority of people used unimproved pit latrines. This research thesis is based on information gathered from the communities prior to the installation of the water supply schemes. It focuses on the linkage between water supply and health by examining diarrhoeal morbidity as a measurable disease outcome and by identifying possible pathways to the prevalence of diarrhoea. Questionnaire and observational surveys were undertaken of 181 households in Mpolweni and 100 households in Vulindlela. From these surveys, the prevalence of diarrhoea in Vulindlela households was found to be 40.4% and in Mpolweni to be 49%. Children under the age of five years old are the most vulnerable, with 20.1% of children in Mpolweni and 21 .3% of children in Vulindlela reported as having had diarrhoea in the recall period prior to the surveys. The Mpolweni study considered eighty exposure variables, finding an association between diarrhoeal disease and sixteen of these variables (p value < 0.05). The Vulindlela study considered fifty-five exposure variables, of which eight were considered significant (p value < 0.05). In regard to water and diarrhoea: • no association was found between the prevalence of diarrhoea and the source of water in either Mpolweni or Vulindlela. • using water to wash nappies was associated with diarrhoeal disease in Vulindlela. However, it is postulated that it is the faecal contamination in the nappy, rather than the water, that is problematic. No association between water use and diarrhoea was established in Mpolweni. • poor disinfection of stored water supplies was associated with diarrhoeal disease in both Mpolweni and Vulindlela. In addition, the use of plastic storage containers to store water at the household provided additional risk in Mpolweni. However, once the reticulated system is installed, the communities are likely to continue to store water due to a distrust of the reliability of water supply. The above surveys form the baseline for additional studies currently being undertaken by Umgeni Water that are intended to measure the effectiveness of the water supply schemes on community health. However, from this thesis, it is concluded that many of the risk factors associated with diarrhoeal disease in both Vulindlela and Mpolweni will not directly be addressed by the introduction of the water supply schemes. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2000.

Most rural communities, such as Nsikeni area under the Mabandla Tribal Authority (MTA) in the Eastern Cape (former Transkei), are located in apartheid-created 'homelands'. These rural areas have large human populations that depend on natural resources, but, they do not derive full benefits from natural resource use. This research study examines the socio-economic status and the Nsikeni community people's perceptions on developing the potential for fly fishing under the concept of community-based resource management (CBRM) strategies. The research attempts to assess the Nsikeni community's resource assets in the form of rivers and related infrastructure together with their human resource and to obtain knowledge and perceptions of available potential in relation to fly fishing. Attention is drawn to socio-economic needs which could challenge the sustainability of a community-based project, land use activities and associated impacts for the Ngwagwane River catchment area, and lastly, based on the Nsikeni community's opinion, a proposed model for a community-based strategy. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2000.

The operations of South African SMMEs have significant environmental and social implications, and the implementation of Corporate Social Responsibilities (CSR) practices in these companies is therefore of great value, both environmentally and socially. Implementation of practices of CSR is influenced by the stakeholders of a company and thus by the socio-economic and political context in which the company operates. This study examines the practice of CSR in manufacturing SMMEs in the Pietermaritzburg area, and how this practice is influenced by their stakeholders. This is done through semi-structured interviews with representatives from key local stakeholders and a sample of eight local manufacturing SMMEs. The study shows that manufacturing SMMEs in the Pietermaritzburg area have implemented a wide variety of CSR practices and that they are managing and interacting with their stakeholders in a sophisticated manner. The studied companies do in general have a limited understanding and narrow interpretation of CSR, and CSR is often confused with Corporate Social Investment (CSI) as it is described in the South African Broad Based Black Economic Empowerment (B-BBEE) scorecard. The companies do, however, practise CSR in a number of ways. The companies have implemented practices that address all of the CSR issues examined in this study: Labour issues, B-BBEE, HIV/AIDS, environmental issues and community outreach. The nature of, extent of, and motivation for these activities do, however, vary considerably. The results of the study reveal that the motivation for undertaking practices of CSR generally can be attributed to influence from the stakeholders of the examined companies. In this study the stakeholders were identified on the basis of a contextual analysis, and the stakeholder model of Donaldson and Preston was grouped into: Civil society stakeholders and communities, Government stakeholders, Stakeholders affiliated with the companies, and Business stakeholders. All groups of stakeholders were found to be exerting a significant influence on the CSR practices undertaken by the examined companies. The degree of influence varies amongst the different stakeholders and practices, and some of the CSR practices had been undertaken as a result of influence from several stakeholders. A few of the CSR practices undertaken by the interviewed SMMEs can be attributed to influence from the local key stakeholders that were interviewed in this study. It is also possible to find examples of companies implementing CSR practices as a result of local stakeholders combining their efforts. The study shows that SMMEs in the Pietermaritzburg area are responsive to their stakeholders and that the practice of CSR is greatly influenced by what the companies consider to be their stakeholders’ concerns. The interviewed local stakeholders have, however, only a limited influence on the SMMEs. It is therefore likely that the stakeholders can deepen the practice of CSR in local SMMEs by co-operating and thus increasing one or more of their stakeholder attributes: power, legitimacy, and urgency. The study has contributed to a greater understanding of the role of stakeholders in influencing CSR practice in South African SMMEs and has revealed important hints on how this influence can be strengthened and directed through government activities and other stakeholder alliances. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2011.