The Mgeni River is the major water resource for the eThekwini Metropolitan and Msunduzi Municipalities. At the end of 2002, the Mooi-Mgeni Transfer Scheme Phase 1, which transfers water from the Mooi River into the Mgeni catchment to augment the water supply to this region, was completed. The interbasin transfer of water resulted in the loss of habitat, erosion of the stream channel and transformation of the riparian zone in the receiving streams. Stream regulation resulting in an altered flow regime is considered the greatest threat to a riverine environment. An Environmental Management Plan (EMP), incorporating fluvial geomorphological monitoring procedures, was implemented to monitor the impact of the transfer on the receiving streams, the Mpofana and Lions Rivers, and to determine the rate and magnitude of erosion. A comparison of the geomorphological monitoring procedure of the EMP with best practice geomorphological monitoring derived from a review of the national and international stream geomorphological literature was conducted in this study. In addition, the implementation of the EMP geomorphological monitoring procedures was described and onsite observations of physical impacts on the receiving streams were completed. The geomorphological monitoring of the EMP included the use of erosion pins, survey of stream cross-sections and fixed-point photography. Photographs and data were collected from February 2003 to June 2006. The comparison of these monitoring methods against stream assessment best practices revealed the strengths and weaknesses of the geomorphological monitoring implemented in the receiving streams. Several key weaknesses were revealed. Firstly, an inadequate number of stream cross sections was included in the monitoring procedures. Secondly, although the erosion pins indicated some general trends in the erosion of the stream channel, they did not give a true impression of the rate and magnitude of change in slope and channel width of the stream, and the location of the erosion pins sites did not take into account the actual direction of flow during transfer as erosion pin sites were selected during low flow conditions. In addition, it was difficult to determine whether the erosion pins had been lost due to erosion or to turbulence. The results were difficult to assess and did not show whether the erosion was localised at the pins or the section of bank or stream profile. Thirdly, analysis of platform changes in the stream channel (e.g. through a comparison of aerial photograph sets) was lacking and no attempt was made to integrate the results from the different methods. Overall, the study concluded that the geomorphological monitoring of the EMP was limited, and it did not highlight the rate and magnitude of erosion in the receiving streams. Based on the findings of this study, recommendations are provided for geomorphological monitoring of the receiving streams of the Mooi Mgeni Transfer Scheme. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2009.

Protected Areas (PAs) are one of the most effective mechanisms for biodiversity conservation. They are found in almost every country and have been adopted by the international community through various conventions and agreements. However setting aside areas as protected areas does not automatically qualify them to be effectively managed. Research around the world has shown that some PAs are not well managed due to different reasons in different parts of the world. Therefore it is important to determine management effectiveness of PAs to ascertain whether they are managed according to the objectives for which they were created. The Management Effectiveness Tracking Tool (METT) is one of the tools developed to evaluate management effectiveness of PAs around the world. The tool has been implemented in a number of countries including Namibia where it has been modified into the Namibia Management Effectiveness Tracking Tool (NAMETT) through the United Nations Development Programme and Global Environment Facility’s Strengthening the Protected Areas Network (SPAN) project. However the effectiveness of this tool in providing necessary information about PA management effectiveness was not ascertained before implementation. The Namibian PA management authorities on the other hand need a tool for determining management effectiveness of PAs for management decision-making and as part of their obligations through international conventions which they signed. The aim of this research study was to analyse and assess the NAMETT as a management effectiveness tool for PAs in Namibia, by looking at the strength and weakness of the tool. This will inform whether its worthwhile adopting the tool as a standard management effectiveness evaluation tool for Namibia’s PAs. To accomplish this NAMETT assessment data obtained from the two NAMETT assessments undertaken by SPAN project was analysed. Furthermore different qualitative techniques were used including a semi-structured questionnaire as part of a case study approach. A comprehensive literature review was undertaken in the process and links to students undertaking similar research projects and professionals in the PA management industry were established and complemented the research data. Data obtained from NAMETT assessment undertaken by SPAN project appear to provide a picture of the different levels of management effectiveness in Namibia’s PAs suggesting the tool could be adopted for management effectiveness of Namibia’s PAs. Research data and information gathered shows that at the moment there is no management effectiveness tracking tool in Namibia. PA management authorities lack the necessary management effectiveness information for decision making. Currently only reports, the Incident Book Monitoring System (IBMS) and park inspections are the only sources of information for PA management authorities in Namibia. These tools are inadequate as they do not provide information at a strategic level which can help show trends and weakness and strength in PA management. Therefore a METT tool based on the World Commission on Protected Area’s Framework of which Namibia is a signatory is warranted. The NAMETT provides good information but lacks a link or section that should highlight the health of the ecosystem or provide information on biodiversity. Furthermore the tool has shortfalls in terms of implementation training and guidelines to assist implementers. Despite this, stakeholders who participated in the research project indicated that the tool should be adopted as the standard management effectiveness tool for PAs in Namibia. This however should come with alignment of the tool to local conditions and development of implementation guidelines as well as linkage to other form of PA management tools such as game counts and the IBMS. There is lack of robust management system for PAs in Namibia which will consolidate implementation of NAMETT. Such a system should involve planning, implementation, reporting and adaptive management. Therefore if NAMETT is to be adopted there is a need for such a system to be in place to enable data and information from the different tools to be able to complement each other for informed decision making about PA management. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2010.

A large number of spatial datasets have inconsistent and/or outdated metadata. In certain cases, metadata is entirely absent. Some spatial data producers suggest that metadata creation and maintenance is a time consuming and labour-intensive process. Conversely, users experience difficulties in understanding and accessing spatial datasets, if associated metadata is insufficient or non-existent. Eventually, deficient metadata use may lead to loss of spatial data meaning and cause its very existence to be forgotten. The purpose of the study was to assess the main challenges hindering metadata creation and maintenance on the part of producers and its usage on the part of users in South Africa. The main findings showed that: data was accessed at expected levels via the internet; most data users accepted alternative spatial data media including compact disks and hardcopy; the spatial data industry is generally under financial budget constraints; particularly in the public sector, lack of skilled personnel in spatial metadata management resulted in staff turnover problems; the framework datasets indicated outdated metadata; and different producers used inconsistent metadata standards and a number of organizations were at rudimentary stage of spatial metadata development. In conclusion, spatial data producers should be encouraged to maintain data with complete documentation in a standardized spatial metadata to assure information consistency for users. Raising awareness about spatial metadata benefits may encourage data managers and top leaders to build on metadata priorities. Moreover, strong compliance with the SDI policy necessitates solid cooperation amongst the spatial data community. / Thesis (M.Sc.) - University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2009.

Flowering is one of the most important stages in determining the successful survival and spread in plants. The duration of the flowering period is closely associated with successful reproduction, making it essential to understand the importance and effects of the length of flowering on various macroecological variables across plant species. The effects of the length of flowering periods on the distribution range size of species have seldom been investigated. This project aims to identify any macroecological relationship that may exist between the length of flowering periods and the distribution ranges of plant species endemic to the eastern part of South Africa, a region well known for its floral diversity. Range size and flowering phenology data were collected for several genera that are centred in the region (Cussonia, Gymnosporia, Searsia, Streptocarpus, Pavetta, Plectranthus, Crinum, Eulophia, Gladiolus, Kniphofia, Satyrium, Watsonia and Zantedeschia). At genus level, the relationship varied considerably. While significant correlations between the two variables were retrieved in four genera, the meaning of these patterns differed. In some cases, these suggested that a larger range was achieved through successful pollination due to extended flowering periods, whereas in others, it is probably just an effect of different flowering seasons in different areas where the range is large enough to comprise diverse climates. When incorporating variables such as growth form (narrowly and broadly-defined) and genus identity in analyses of covariance between flowering durations and various measures of distribution, the association of genera was far greater than that of growth form. It can be concluded that both range size and the length of the flowering season are the result of numerous factors acting jointly, which differ across plant groups and are likely to be susceptible to changes in climate and biological invasions. This means that the relationship between range size and flowering period is driven by different factors in different genera, suggesting that the conservation of plant diversity in the face of global change will have to consider the complexity of flowering patterns, and it is likely that lineage-specific approaches for different plant groups will be necessary. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville, 2012.

The Government of National Unity's (GNU) desire to eliminate socio-economic imbalances inherited from the apartheid era resulted in the creation ofthe Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) which outlines principles and strategies for development in key areas. One such area is nutrition; in this regard President Mandela enacted the Primary School Nutrition Programme (PSNP) to provide one third of the minimum daily food intake for primary school children, where the need existed. The PSNP was launched on the 1st of September 1994 following the announcement of the start of the programme by the President in his State of the Nation Address on 24 May 1994. Prior to the establishment of the PSNP, the National Nutrition and Social Development Programme (NNSDP) was addressing malnutrition, targeting pre-school children and pregnant and nursing mothers. Initiated without a carefully planned strategy and clearly defined roles for the national and provincial offices, the NNSDP and its successor, the PSNP were, and remain, far from successful. In 1996 the Health Systems Trust (HST) and the Department of Health (DoH) held a workshop intended to build a framework for evaluating the PSNP. The evaluation of the PSNP was prompted by the fact that direct nutrition interventions in South Africa account for about 7% of the public health budget which in monetary terms is a considerable amount. It remains dubious whether this money is being spent efficiently and appropriately. Further, the evaluation of the programme is a result of severe criticism from all fronts of society as fraud has become apparent in the various government departments within the provinces. In KwaZulu Natal, extensive fraud has occurred, where cases of non-existent schools and teachers have, for example, been discovered on the list of beneficiaries of the PSNP. The aim of this study is to form a component of the HST and DoH evaluation of the PSNP through investigating how the allocation of funding has been conducted in KwaZulu Natal, and, if this is found to be inappropriate, to provide recommendations for improved allocation . of funds. To find out more about allocation procedures in KwaZulu Natal, key informants from the Department of Health were interviewed and their responses were analysed to expose problems with the targeting and allocation of funding at the various levels of government. Further, data obtained from the KwaZulu Natal Department of Health in Durban were analysed using a sample taken from the final financial quarter ofthe year 1995/96. These data showed the amount of PSNP funds advanced to ,each school compared with the amount of funding which was accounted for, as per the procedures for the implementation of the programme. Judging from the results obtained, the use of allocated funds for the PSNP in KwaZulu Natal has not been successful in 80% of cases in the ten Magisterial Districts assessed. In educational terms, there may be a role for a programme such as the PSNP - providing pupils with enough food to enable them to be more alert and active in the school environment whereas in nutritional terms, this appears to be less the case. Improving nutrition status is much more feasible when programmes are targeted at the very young and pre-school children. Lack of targeting in KwaZulu Natal has contributed to limited success of the PSNP as a nutrition tool. In the light of the evaluation undertaken in this study, it is proposed that targeting younger, pre-school children is an attractive alternative for future nutrition-based interventions and more development-based approaches, rather than the "food hand-outs" which appear to characterise the PSNP. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1997.

This project describes and evaluates a method of assessing the suitability of 161 farms for inclusion in a biosphere reserve. Farms were chosen as a basic study unit over more ecologically based units because the decision to participate in the biosphere reserve rests with the landowner. The study area is located in northern KwaZulu-Natal, between Hlobane, near Vryheid, and the Itala Nature Reserve where local landowners are exploring the possibility of establishing a biosphere reserve. A brief review of the natural, social and economic contexts is given in order to identify local dynamics relevant to the establishment of a biosphere reserve. Farm suitability for inclusion was assessed with respect to its capability to fulfil the three main roles of a biosphere reserve as defined by the Man and Biosphere Programme of UNESCO. These are conservation, sustainable development and research. Ten factors were identified to determine farm suitability: vegetation, fauna and soil conservation, present land use, agricultural potential, tourism potential, education, settlement density and location. These were prioritised using the Analytical Hierarchy Process according to their impact on the main roles of the biosphere reserve.Each farm was given a factor score according to the expression of that factor on that farm. Overall farm suitability was taken as the sum of the weighted factor scores. The final scores for each farm were grouped into suitability classes and these were mapped. This map was then used to make recommendations on which farms should be considered for inclusion in the reserve. This method of assessing farm suitability for inclusion in a biosphere reserve, involving scoring the factors determining suitability and prioritising these factors was evaluated with respect-to its efficiency in identifying suitable properties. This was achieved by comparing the results of the assessment with the suitability class of farms with known suitability. The conceptual approach to the assessment was reviewed against published guidelines for integrated regional planning and rational resource planning. The accuracy of the project method in correctly identifying suitable farms was assessed against two other simplified methods of assessment, involving no weighting between factors, and a limited number of factors. Based on these analyses, conclusions have been drawn as to the strengths and weaknesses of both the method of farm assessment and the method of evaluation itself Recommendations were made for further research into and development of methods of assessing farm suitability for biosphere reserves. A procedure for the establishment of the proposed Itala Biosphere Reserve was suggested. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1997.

The purpose of the study was to investigate the potential of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) in South African local planning. Planning is facing great challenges in contemporary South Africa and one of them is to consider new technologies to enable effective and efficient planning for the future. In meeting the overall aim of the study, a number of goals were set. The first goal was to provide an overview of GIS implementation in local governments from an international perspective. This goal was achieved by reviewing literature on the subject which encompassed the technology's evolution and factors affecting implementation. Practical examples were cited to demonstrate the application of GIS in planning. The second goal was to examine the role of GIS within the South African planning context. An investigation of the relevant legislation provided a context within which GIS could be implemented at the local level. In order to arrive at the second goal, a suitable planning process was derived from a review of applicable planning theory. The third goal was to illustrate practically how GIS could be implemented and integrated into the planning process at the local level. This goal was achieved by carrying out a project within the Pietermaritzburg suburb of Mountain Rise. The results of the case study showed that GIS has a potentially significant role to play in planning at the local level. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1999.

Climate change resulting from the augmented "greenhouse effect" is likely to have significant effects on the terrestrial hydrological system and the social and ecological systems linked to it. Climate change could potentially affect inputs to the agrohydrological system such as rainfall, temperature and potential evaporation; processes within the system such as vegetation dynamics and crop production; and hydrological responses such as runoff, recharge of soil water into the vadose zone and net irrigation demand. This study outlines the use of a daily water budget model, ACRU, and SCENGEN, a climate change scenario generator, to assess potential impacts of global climate change on agricultural production and hydrological responses in southern Africa. This study also considers potential impacts of climate change on plant response which may determine the extent of potential impacts of climate change on agricultural production and hydrological response. Two approaches to climate change impact studies are adopted for use in this study. The first, and more conventional approach considers the impact of a specified climate change scenario, in this case developed with the use of SCENGEN, on the terrestrial hydrological system. The second approach considers the degree of climate change, in this case precipitation change, required to perturb the hydrological system significantly in the various climate regimes found in southern Africa. A comparative analysis of the sensitivity of selected hydrological responses to climate change produced the following results, in ascending order of sensitivity: net irrigation demand < stormflow response < runoff < recharge into the vadose zone. The impacts of a specific climate scenario change on hydrological responses produced unexpected results. A general decrease in mean annual precipitation over southern Africa is predicted for the future with SCENGEN. However, widespread simulated increases in runoff, soil moisture content in the A- and B-horizon and recharge into the vadose zone are obtained. These increases are a product of the CO2 "fertilisation" feedback, which is incorporated as a maximum transpiration suppression routine, in the ACRU model. Net irrigation demand, which is not linked to this routine, is simulated to increase in the future. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1997.

Successful and convincing examples where local peoples' development needs have been effectively reconciled with biodiversity conservation remain difficult to find. One important reason for this is that little progress has been made in researching critical new areas such as developing indices to monitor qualitative concepts such as local participation. In this study, current approaches to the problems with measuring participation in Integrated Conservation and Development Projects (ICDPs) are reviewed. A theoretical framework combining the works of several practitioners is used to monitor the Nsonga Valley Forum (NVF), in the Hlatikulu Valley, Kwazulu-Natal as an example of an emerging ICDP. The NVF was formed in 1997 after a visit by the provincial parliamentary committee on Conservation and Environment. The Forum aims to act as a mouthpiece for the local Nsonga community and as a capacity building structure, while maintaining the ecological integrity of the Hlatikulu Vlei and adjacent Afromontane Hlatikulu Forest. Two sets of indicators are used in this framework. The prevalence indicators trace the nature of participation in the various stages of the development of the NVF's operation - i.e. in decision making and implementation, in benefit sharing and evaluation. The opportunity indicators refer to the level of opportunity or access available to the local people through the implementation of the Forum by analyzing its organisation and access to resources. According to this framework, the NVF would currently be classified as falling into the 'participation by consultation' category of an assumed legitimate typology of participation. Ultimately, empowerment properly defined, would be the goal of community development in the Hlatikulu Valley but would require a much greater participation of the community than is evident as present. In order to prevent biodiversity conservation and sustainable economic development from becoming no more than an attractive slogan, participatory development research needs to be replicable, cost-effective and realistic. Recommendations are accordingly made for the future assessment, monitoring and evaluation of the progress of the NVF and other similar ICDP projects. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1999.

Wood products from Milletia grandis (E. Mey) skeels (umSimbithi), a prominent tree in the coastal scarp forests ofPondoland, form an important economic base for the craft workers in Urnzimvubu District ofthe Eastern Cape. The local carving industry draws considerable income in a place where employment opportunities are scarce, poverty is rife and financial burden and dependency is high. Despite the curio trade being perceived as important by the local communities, little is known about this craft work industry or its impact on the forest especially the sustainability of the wood resource base. Resource availability and impacts of harvesting were assessed at Mount Thesiger Forest Reserve (MTFR) through sampling plots and social surveys oflocal carvers and curio traders. Stem size-class distributions ofstanding trees and stumps were used to investigate the present quantity, past harvesting patterns and distribution ofM grandis within the forests. Line transects sampling confirmed umSimbithi as a forest margin species penetrating to about 50 metres into the forest from the edge and its. current use was found to be unsustainable. Current monitoring and management of most State forests in the Eastern Cape is inadequate, and although a harvest ban has been served, it has only led to and encouraged poaching. Social surveys indicated that the quality of monitoring and sustainability of wood stocks in the Headmen forests appear better than in State forests and this raises hope for successful comanagement structures in the area. Craftwood production and derived income varied from one month to another depending on wood availability, size and shape of stems, with straight stems being most preferred. MontWy income per carver was estimated between R960 to RIIOO while the annual yield for the estimated 100 carvers in the communities surrounding MTFR approximated RI.l million. It was observed that higher sales could be obtained if (1) the amount of wood wasted during harvests and carving could be minimised and (2) the craft products were marketed in the lucrative up markets such as Johannesburg, Durban and Maseru. Interviews with 30 carvers pointed to several problems most of them originating from the stoppage of harvest permits following the ban on umSimbithi. Various recommendations addressing carver's needs and promoting sustainable resource management are proposed. These include (1) establishing an appropriate land tenure system, (2) reviewing the permit system, (3) strengthening the institutional capacity ofthe Forest Department and (4) enhancing efforts on community forest outreach through the extension system. Above all, and to achieve sustainable forest management in Pondoland, tenurial rights needs to be addressed and the options of co-management, community management and privatisation are discussed. It was noted that for sustainable development to be realised in Pondoland, co-management ofnatural resources is important and this must be supported by introduction ofother economic activities that would alleviate pressure off the forests. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 1997.