The current reverse osmosis desalination membrane market is dominated by aromatic polyamide thin film composite (TFC) membranes. However, these polyamide membranes suffer from poor resistance to continual exposure to oxidizing agents such as chlorine in desalination applications. To overcome these problems, we have synthesized and characterized a new generation of materials, disulfonated poly(arylene ether sulfone) (BPS) random copolymer, for desalination membranes. A key technical feature of these new materials is their high tolerance to chlorine in feed water and their excellent reproducibility in synthesis. In this study, water and sodium chloride solubility, diffusivity and permeability in BPS copolymers were measured for both acid and salt form samples at sulfonation levels from 20 to 40 mol percent. The hydrophilicity of these materials, based on water uptake, increased significantly as sulfonation level increased. The water and salt diffusivity and permeability were correlated with water uptake, consistent with expectations from free volume theory. In addition, a tradeoff was observed between water/salt solubility, diffusivity, and permeability selectivity and water solubility, diffusivity and permeability, respectively. The influence of cation form and degree of sulfonation on free volume, as probed via positron annihilation lifetime spectroscopy (PALS), was determined in BPS random copolymers in both the dry and hydrated states. PALS-based free volume data for hydrated polymers were correlated with water and salt transport properties. The influence of processing history on transport properties of BPS films was also studied. Potassium form BPS films having a 32 mol% sulfonation level were acidified using solid state and solution routes. Additionally, several films were subjected to various thermal treatments in the solid state. The influence of acidification, thermal treatment, and counter-ion form on transport properties was investigated. Finally, the influence of synthesis methods of polyamide TFC membranes from m-phenylenediamine (MPD) and trimesoyl chloride (TMC) via interfacial polymerization on transport properties is reported. Then, a disulfonated diamine monomer (S-BAPS) was used instead of MPD to prepare TFC membranes. The resulting membranes exhibited reduced chlorine tolerance than those prepared from MPD. However, introduction of S-BAPS to the MPD/TMC polymerization system increased the fouling resistance of the resulting polyamide TFC membranes. / text

Membrane processes have received growing attention due to their low energy consumption and ease of operation. Thin-film composite reverse osmosis membranes based on polyamides are the most widely applied commercial membranes, because of their high flux and selectivity. However, their application for gas separation processes is still limited. This is the due to the presence of defects in the membrane when in the dry state. Traditionally, thin-film composite membranes are made by interfacial polymerization between a polar (aqueous) phase and a non-polar (organic) phase. The most commonly applied thin-film composite membranes are made by dissolving m-phenylene diamine in the aqueous phase and trimesoyl chloride in the organic phase. This work investigated the possibility of fabricating thin-film composite membranes when an aliphatic alcohol (methanol, ethanol or isopropanol) is used as the polar phase. This is further extended to examining the ability of a PDMS coating to plug the defects in such layers. The effects of temperature and support type on the membrane performance were also studied. Solubility tests were conducted to determine the solubility limit of commercial and in-house fabricated amine monomers in water, methanol, ethanol and isopropanol. Water-insoluble monomers were found to be soluble in ethanol and methanol. Gas permeation tests were conducted on membranes made using water, methanol, ethanol and isopropanol as the polar phase. The results showed that the membranes produced by aliphatic alcohols had higher selectivities. The highest H2/CO2 selectivity of ~ 26 was observed in the ethanol-based membranes when they were coated with PDMS and tested at 80 C. It was confirmed that PDMS is able to plug the defects in the membrane. Membranes made on the polysulfone support were found to have higher permeance and comparable selectivity relative to the membranes made on the polyacrylonitrile supports. It was also found that a change in the polar phase solvent is able to alter the morphology of the membranes. SEM micrographs showed clear differences in the surface structure of each membrane. The average thickness values obtained from ellipsometry measurements showed a correlation with the interface miscibility. The thickest membrane corresponded to the most miscible interface (IPA/Isopar).

Membrane technology has been used in water purification for decades. However, membrane fouling remains a limiting factor. One way to control fouling is through surface modification. Several studies report that increasing surface hydrophilicity can reduce membrane fouling. Surface modification via physical coating (i.e., thin-film composite membrane) was explored in this research to prevent membrane fouling. Before making thin-film composite membranes, it was important to study structure/property relations in a series of potential coating materials. This research aims to contribute to a better fundamental understanding of the structure/property relations which govern water transport, rejection of model foulants (i.e., emulsified oil droplet or protein), and fouling characteristics in hydrogels based on poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA) and N-vinyl-2-pyrrolidone (NVP). Crosslinked poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) free-standing films were prepared by UV-induced photopolymerization of PEGDA crosslinker in the presence of varying amounts of water or monofunctional poly(ethylene glycol) acrylate (PEGA). The crosslinked PEGDA films exhibited polymerization induced phase separation (PIPS) when the water content of the prepolymerization mixture was greater than 60 wt%. Visible light absorbance measurements, water uptake, water permeability, and salt kinetic desorption experiments were used to characterize the structure of these phase-separated, crosslinked hydrogels. The films with PIPS exhibited a porous morphology in cryogenic scanning electron microscope (CryoSEM) studies. Dead-end filtration experiments using deionized water and bovine serum albumin (BSA) solutions were performed to explore the fundamental transport and fouling properties of these materials. The total flux of pure water through the films after prior exposure to BSA solution was nearly equal to that of the as-prepared material, indicating that these PEGDA films resist fouling by BSA under the conditions studied. Crosslinked NVP free-standing films were prepared by UV-induced photopolymerization in the presence of water, with NVP as the monomer and N,N’-methylenebisacrylamide (MBAA) as the crosslinker. A series of crosslinked films were polymerized at various prepolymerization water contents, NVP/MBAA ratios and at various levels of UV light intensity in the polymerization. Like PEGDA, the NVP films also underwent phase-separation during polymerization. The influence of monomer/ crosslinker ratio, prepolymerization water content, and UV intensities on membrane morphology and water transport was characterized with CryoSEM, bio-atomic force microscope (Bio-AFM) and dead-end filtration. Molecular weight cutoff (MWCO) measurements were used to characterize the sieving property of crosslinked NVP films polymerized at different UV intensities. UV intensity was found to have an impact on the interconnectivity of crosslinked membranes. Finally, tests of fouling resistance to protein solution (bovine serum albumin) and oily water emulsion were performed. The NVP crosslinked films had good protein and oily water fouling resistance. Overall, both crosslinked PEGDA and NVP films exhibit fouling resistance to oily water emulsions or protein solution. NVP films had more porous structure and higher water permeability than did PEGDA films, while the more compact structure of PEGDA films led to better rejection of model foulants (e.g., protein) than in NVP films. Based on different applications (e.g., oil/water separation, protein filtration), different coating materials must be chosen according to the membrane morphology, transport property, and rejection of model foulants to achieve the highest water flux and foulant rejection in membranes used for water purification. / text

Um grande obstáculo a ser vencido para que se tenha uma maior utilização da tecnologia de membranas na purificação de líquidos é o fenômeno do fouling. Como consequência, o desenvolvimento de membranas menos propensas ao fouling é hoje objeto de inúmeras pesquisas. Dentre os processos estudados, tem-se o desenvolvimento de membranas de filme fino composto, que possui como vantagem a possibilidade de se melhorar cada camada de maneira independente, de forma a se aperfeiçoar o desempenho da membrana como um todo. O projeto de pesquisa foi desenvolvido no laboratório do Centro Internacional de Referência em Reúso de Água (CIRRA/IRCWR), uma entidade sem fins lucrativos, vinculado ao Departamento de Engenharia Hidráulica e Ambiental da Escola Politécnica da Universidade de São Paulo (USP). Este teve como objetivo a síntese e a caracterização de membranas de filme fino composto de polissulfona e quitosana reticulada com glutaraldeído. Embora o objetivo principal desse trabalho tenha sido o desenvolvimento de membranas menos propensa ao fouling, a susceptibilidade ao fouling das membranas produzidas foi avaliada de maneira indireta, através da avaliação de propriedades como hidrofilicidade e rugosidade da superfície. Membranas de ultrafiltração a base de polissulfona (PSF) foram produzidas, através do método de separação de fases via imersão-precipitação, para serem usadas como suporte poroso para a camada de quitosana. Nessa etapa, a influência da concentração de PSF na solução polimérica; da temperatura de síntese; da umidade relativa do ar; e do suporte (não-tecido) nas características da membrana foram estudadas. O efeito da aplicação de uma camada de álcool polivinílico, reticulada com glutaraldeído, entre as camadas de PSF e quitosana, como forma de melhorar a estabilidade estrutural da membrana, foi avaliado. Adicionalmente, analisou-se a influência da introdução do glutaraldeído como agente reticulante na solução de quitosana na seletividade; na taxa de permeação; na estabilidade química; e na toxicidade da membrana. Os resultados obtidos mostraram que o aumento da concentração de PSF na solução polimérica, a diminuição da temperatura de síntese e o aumento da umidade do ar levaram à formação de membranas menos porosas. Os suportes de poliéster avaliados, CU414 e CU424 (Crane Nonwovens), embora apresentem características adequadas à produção de membranas, não se mostraram adequados para a síntese de membranas de PSF nas condições avaliadas devido a sua alta porosidade. A solução de reticulação da camada de álcool polivinílico (PVA), composta de glutaraldeído em solução aquosa de acetona, atacou quimicamente o suporte de poliéster e a membrana de polissulfona, inviabilizando a aplicação da camada de PVA entre as camadas de PSF e quitosana. A introdução do glutaraldeído tornou a camada de quitosana menos rugosa e mais hidrofílica. Adicionalmente, o aumento da concentração de glutaraldeído na solução de quitosana levou a um decréscimo na permeabilidade da membrana, o qual foi atribuído à compactação da estrutura da membrana. A reticulação da quitosana com glutaraldeído não levou a uma melhora significativa da capacidade de separação das membranas. A rejeição de ions bivalentes (Mg2+ e SO4 2-) e monovalentes (Na+ e Cl-) não ultrapassou 25% e 12%, respectivamente. Análises de microscopia de eletrônica de varredura realizadas com as membranas reticuladas com glutaraldeído, antes e após sua imersão em solução de HCl, indicaram que a superfície das membranas reticuladas com 3% de glutaraldeído aparentemente não foi afetada pelo ácido, ao contrário das membranas reticuladas com 1% e 5% de glutaraldeído, que apresentaram aumento no tamanho de seus poros. Não foi observada toxicidade aguda e/ou crônica, em relação aos organismos teste Daphinia similis e Ceriodaphinia dubia, respectivamente, em amostras de água que permaneceram em contato com as membranas reticuladas com glutaraldeído. / A major obstacle to be overcome in order to have a greater use of membrane technology in liquids purification is the phenomenon of fouling. As a consequence, the development of membranes less prone to fouling is now the objective of numerous studies. Among the processes evaluated, the development of thin film composite membranes has been the focus of many researches since it is possible to improve each layer independently, in order to improve the membrane performance as a whole. This work aimed to study the synthesis and characterization of thin film composite chitosan, crosslinked with glutaraldehyde, and polysulfone (PSF) membranes. PSF ultrafiltration membranes were produced by phase inversion via immersion precipitation to be used as porous support for the chitosan layer. The influence of PSF concentration in the polymeric solution; temperature of synthesis; air humidity, and membrane nonwoven support, CU414 and CU424 (Crane Nonwovens), on the membrane characteristics and performance were studied. The effect polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), crosslinked with glutaraldehyde, between PSF and chitosan layers, on the cast membrane structural stability was investigated. The influence of glutaraldehyde as a chitosan crosslinking agent on membrane selectivity, permeability, chemical stability, and toxicity was also evaluated. The results showed that increasing PSF concentration, decreasing temperature and increasing air humidity resulted in less porous membranes. The support media used were not suitable for the production of PSF membranes under the conditions used in this work due to its high porosity. The solution used to crosslink the PVA layer, composed of glutaraldehyde in aqueous solution of acetone, attacked the support media and the PSF membrane, preventing the application of the PVA layer between the PSF and chitosan layers. The use of glutaraldehyde as a chitosan crosslinking agent made the membrane less rough and more hydrophilic. Additionally, increasing glutaraldehyde concentration in the chitosan solution led to a decrease in membrane permeability, which was attributed to a compaction of the membrane structure, leading to a decreased mobility of polymer chains and a decrease in the membrane void volume. Membranes separation capacity was evaluated using two different ionic solutions, magnesium sulphate (MgSO4 1,000 mg/L), and sodium chloride (NaCl 2,000 mg/L). Rejection of bivalent and monovalent ions did not exceed 25% and 12%, respectively. Scanning electron microscopy images showed that the membrane surface crosslinked with 3% glutaraldehyde apparently was not affected by immersion into HCl solution. However, the membranes crosslinked with 1% and 5% glutaraldehyde showed an increase in pore size after immersion, compared to the untreated membrane, suggesting an increased susceptibility to acid attack of the membrane. The potential for glutaraldehyde membrane releasing was evaluated through acute and chronic toxicity assays using Daphnia similis and Ceriodaphnia dubia, respectively. None of tested membranes induced acute or chronic toxicity to the water at which they remained in contact, under tested conditions.

Um grande obstáculo a ser vencido para que se tenha uma maior utilização da tecnologia de membranas na purificação de líquidos é o fenômeno do fouling. Como consequência, o desenvolvimento de membranas menos propensas ao fouling é hoje objeto de inúmeras pesquisas. Dentre os processos estudados, tem-se o desenvolvimento de membranas de filme fino composto, que possui como vantagem a possibilidade de se melhorar cada camada de maneira independente, de forma a se aperfeiçoar o desempenho da membrana como um todo. O projeto de pesquisa foi desenvolvido no laboratório do Centro Internacional de Referência em Reúso de Água (CIRRA/IRCWR), uma entidade sem fins lucrativos, vinculado ao Departamento de Engenharia Hidráulica e Ambiental da Escola Politécnica da Universidade de São Paulo (USP). Este teve como objetivo a síntese e a caracterização de membranas de filme fino composto de polissulfona e quitosana reticulada com glutaraldeído. Embora o objetivo principal desse trabalho tenha sido o desenvolvimento de membranas menos propensa ao fouling, a susceptibilidade ao fouling das membranas produzidas foi avaliada de maneira indireta, através da avaliação de propriedades como hidrofilicidade e rugosidade da superfície. Membranas de ultrafiltração a base de polissulfona (PSF) foram produzidas, através do método de separação de fases via imersão-precipitação, para serem usadas como suporte poroso para a camada de quitosana. Nessa etapa, a influência da concentração de PSF na solução polimérica; da temperatura de síntese; da umidade relativa do ar; e do suporte (não-tecido) nas características da membrana foram estudadas. O efeito da aplicação de uma camada de álcool polivinílico, reticulada com glutaraldeído, entre as camadas de PSF e quitosana, como forma de melhorar a estabilidade estrutural da membrana, foi avaliado. Adicionalmente, analisou-se a influência da introdução do glutaraldeído como agente reticulante na solução de quitosana na seletividade; na taxa de permeação; na estabilidade química; e na toxicidade da membrana. Os resultados obtidos mostraram que o aumento da concentração de PSF na solução polimérica, a diminuição da temperatura de síntese e o aumento da umidade do ar levaram à formação de membranas menos porosas. Os suportes de poliéster avaliados, CU414 e CU424 (Crane Nonwovens), embora apresentem características adequadas à produção de membranas, não se mostraram adequados para a síntese de membranas de PSF nas condições avaliadas devido a sua alta porosidade. A solução de reticulação da camada de álcool polivinílico (PVA), composta de glutaraldeído em solução aquosa de acetona, atacou quimicamente o suporte de poliéster e a membrana de polissulfona, inviabilizando a aplicação da camada de PVA entre as camadas de PSF e quitosana. A introdução do glutaraldeído tornou a camada de quitosana menos rugosa e mais hidrofílica. Adicionalmente, o aumento da concentração de glutaraldeído na solução de quitosana levou a um decréscimo na permeabilidade da membrana, o qual foi atribuído à compactação da estrutura da membrana. A reticulação da quitosana com glutaraldeído não levou a uma melhora significativa da capacidade de separação das membranas. A rejeição de ions bivalentes (Mg2+ e SO4 2-) e monovalentes (Na+ e Cl-) não ultrapassou 25% e 12%, respectivamente. Análises de microscopia de eletrônica de varredura realizadas com as membranas reticuladas com glutaraldeído, antes e após sua imersão em solução de HCl, indicaram que a superfície das membranas reticuladas com 3% de glutaraldeído aparentemente não foi afetada pelo ácido, ao contrário das membranas reticuladas com 1% e 5% de glutaraldeído, que apresentaram aumento no tamanho de seus poros. Não foi observada toxicidade aguda e/ou crônica, em relação aos organismos teste Daphinia similis e Ceriodaphinia dubia, respectivamente, em amostras de água que permaneceram em contato com as membranas reticuladas com glutaraldeído. / A major obstacle to be overcome in order to have a greater use of membrane technology in liquids purification is the phenomenon of fouling. As a consequence, the development of membranes less prone to fouling is now the objective of numerous studies. Among the processes evaluated, the development of thin film composite membranes has been the focus of many researches since it is possible to improve each layer independently, in order to improve the membrane performance as a whole. This work aimed to study the synthesis and characterization of thin film composite chitosan, crosslinked with glutaraldehyde, and polysulfone (PSF) membranes. PSF ultrafiltration membranes were produced by phase inversion via immersion precipitation to be used as porous support for the chitosan layer. The influence of PSF concentration in the polymeric solution; temperature of synthesis; air humidity, and membrane nonwoven support, CU414 and CU424 (Crane Nonwovens), on the membrane characteristics and performance were studied. The effect polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), crosslinked with glutaraldehyde, between PSF and chitosan layers, on the cast membrane structural stability was investigated. The influence of glutaraldehyde as a chitosan crosslinking agent on membrane selectivity, permeability, chemical stability, and toxicity was also evaluated. The results showed that increasing PSF concentration, decreasing temperature and increasing air humidity resulted in less porous membranes. The support media used were not suitable for the production of PSF membranes under the conditions used in this work due to its high porosity. The solution used to crosslink the PVA layer, composed of glutaraldehyde in aqueous solution of acetone, attacked the support media and the PSF membrane, preventing the application of the PVA layer between the PSF and chitosan layers. The use of glutaraldehyde as a chitosan crosslinking agent made the membrane less rough and more hydrophilic. Additionally, increasing glutaraldehyde concentration in the chitosan solution led to a decrease in membrane permeability, which was attributed to a compaction of the membrane structure, leading to a decreased mobility of polymer chains and a decrease in the membrane void volume. Membranes separation capacity was evaluated using two different ionic solutions, magnesium sulphate (MgSO4 1,000 mg/L), and sodium chloride (NaCl 2,000 mg/L). Rejection of bivalent and monovalent ions did not exceed 25% and 12%, respectively. Scanning electron microscopy images showed that the membrane surface crosslinked with 3% glutaraldehyde apparently was not affected by immersion into HCl solution. However, the membranes crosslinked with 1% and 5% glutaraldehyde showed an increase in pore size after immersion, compared to the untreated membrane, suggesting an increased susceptibility to acid attack of the membrane. The potential for glutaraldehyde membrane releasing was evaluated through acute and chronic toxicity assays using Daphnia similis and Ceriodaphnia dubia, respectively. None of tested membranes induced acute or chronic toxicity to the water at which they remained in contact, under tested conditions.