Este trabalho propõe a análise da comunicação sem fio para um sistema de controle distribuído de semáforos, a partir da revisão das literaturas, realização de simulações e experimentos, os quais consideram as especificações estabelecidas para o sistema de semáforos. As simulações e os experimentos se baseiam na avaliação do comportamento da comunicação perante a alteração de alguns parâmetros de configuração da rede. O estudo apresentado envolve análises relacionadas ao padrão IEEE 802.11g e às definições da camada física apresentadas nas especificações do padrão. Os métodos utilizados envolvem o estudo e experimentação de parâmetros relacionados à potência de transmissão e recepção, além de análise dos esquemas de modulação utilizados pelo padrão IEEE 802.11g. A metodologia aplicada a este trabalho envolve o conhecimento das características e capacidade dos esquemas de modulação responsáveis pela definição das taxas de transmissão. As análises mostram que a possibilidade de adequação dos parâmetros de configuração de rede, levando em consideração o cenário de aplicação, pode ser um fator essencial para o bom desempenho de todo o sistema. / This work proposes the analysis of wireless communication for a distributed control system of traffic lights, from the review of the literature and conducting simulations and experiments, which consider the specifications established for traffic light system. The simulations and experiments are based on the evaluation of the communication behavior towards changing some network configuration parameters. The study presented involves analysis related to the IEEE 802.11g standard and definitions of the physical layer shown in standard specifications. The methods used involve the study and testing of parameters related to power transmission and reception, and analysis of modulation schemes used by the IEEE 802.11g standard. The methodology applied to this work involves the knowledge of the characteristics and capacity of modulation schemes responsible for setting transmission rates. The analyses show that the possibility of adaptation network configuration parameters considering the application scenario may be an essential factor to the performance of the entire system.

新巴賽爾資協定中，針對銀行風險管理具備三大支柱，支柱一管理信用風險、市場風險及作業風險，其中信用風險方法更分為標準法、基礎內部模型法與進階內部模型法。不論銀行採用何種內部模型法，銀行必須有估計違約機率之能力，並且送交監理機關審查核准。為了確保預測違約機率之適當，巴賽爾銀行監理委員會BCBS (2005) 對於不同資料長度與驗證期間分別建議二項檢定、卡方檢定、常態檢定與紅綠燈檢定。當資料期數足夠時，BCBS推薦使用紅綠燈檢定，但該檢定需要若干假設：違約事件間相互獨立且違約事件在時間上亦獨立，因此在BCBS (2005) 中之某些情境下，採用紅綠燈檢定驗證違約機率會受到違約事件之間並非獨立，造成中央極限定理不適當地近似標準化之違約機率至常態分配，且模擬之型一誤差亦有高估之結果。 在違約事件之間獨立且無時間相關性下，本文建議採用卜瓦松分配近似二項分配；在違約事件之間非獨立且具有時間相關性下，本文則建議採用二項分配，結合granularity adjustment，使違約事件間之相關性可以反映在不同顏色之分色點上。最後，由數量模擬結果顯示：本文建議採用之改良方法，皆可有效將型一誤差維持在設定之顯著水準上，並反映真實之檢定力。因此，不論對銀行或監理機關來說，改良之違約機率驗證方法係值得使用之方法。 / There are three methods in Basel II (Standardized Approach, Foundation IRB Approach and Advanced IRB Approach) to calculate the capital charges. The banks have to estimate probability of default (PD) if they use IRB approach. Four statistic methods recommended by BCBS worthy to validate the PD: Binomial test, Chi-square test, Normal test and Extended Traffic Lights test (ETLT). If the data are long enough, BCBS recommended using the ETLT with the assumptions that the obligors are independent and also independent in time. From numerical results, validating PDs by ETLT will overestimate the type I errors and statistic power. We suggest two methods in different scenarios to make the type I errors closed to the significant level. First, we suggest to approximate Normal distribution in Poisson distribution with randomization technique. Second, we combine Binomial distribution with granularity adjustment to fit the correlation between the obligors. Both methods not only perform well in type I errors, but also reflect the real statistic power. For the banks, both methods are worthy to use for avoiding to increasing the capital charges unexpectedly or the operational risk of the banks.

Le problème de la gestion éco-responsable du trafic urbain est adressé. Ce type de gestion du trafic vise à réduire les arrêts des véhicules, les accélérations, la consommation énergétique, ainsi que la congestion. L'éco-management du trafic dans les réseaux urbains peut être catégorisé dans deux classes principales : contrôle du véhicule et contrôle de l'infrastructure. Les deux domaines de contrôle peuvent présenter caractéristiques soit isolées soit coordonnées, en dépendant du type d'information utilisée dans l'optimisation.La gestion du trafic côté véhicule influe sur chaque véhicule en fonction de ses propres caractéristiques et position. Le contrôle isolé du véhicule vise principalement à optimiser la transmission et/ou le profil de conduite des véhicules, en utilisant éventuellement des informations sur les caractéristiques de la route, mais sans communiquer avec les autres agents du réseau. Le contrôle coordonné du véhicule, d'autre part, fait usage de la communication entre les véhicules et avec l'infrastructure pour obtenir des bénéfices plus importants en termes de consommation d'énergie et de fluidité de la circulation.En revanche, la gestion du côté infrastructure influe sur les feux et les panneaux de signalisation, afin d'améliorer les performances de l'ensemble du trafic. Le contrôle isolé de l'infrastructure régule essentiellement les feux de signalisation pour une seule intersection, ou bien les limites de vitesse dans un seul tronçon de route, sans prendre en compte les interactions avec les jonctions et/ou les sections voisines. Le contrôle coordonné de l'infrastructure surmonte cette limitation en utilisant des informations sur les conditions de circulation dans d'autres sections de la route, afin de réduire la congestion.Les contributions de ce travail peuvent être résumées comme suit.Tout d'abord, une solution pour le contrôle coordonné du véhicule a été proposée, dans laquelle la communication avec l'infrastructure est exploitée pour réduire la consommation d'énergie. En particulier, les plans des feux de signalisation sont supposés être communiqués au véhicule et connus, et une vitesse optimale est suggérée au véhicule afin de traverser une séquence de carrefours à feux sans s'arrêter, tout en suivant une trajectoire d'énergie minimale. La stratégie proposée, appliquée indépendamment à chaque véhicule, a été testée dans un simulateur de trafic microscopique afin d'évaluer l'impact sur les performances du trafic. L'analyse a montré que la consommation d'énergie et le nombre d'arrêts peuvent être considérablement réduits sans affecter le temps de parcours.Ensuite, une solution pour le contrôle isolé de l'infrastructure a été proposée. Un modèle macroscopique du trafic urbain a été introduit, et les limites de vitesse variables ont été utilisées pour améliorer les performances de la circulation. L'optimisation vise à trouver un compromis entre la réduction de consommation énergétique et le temps de parcours moyen des véhicules dans le tronçon de route considéré. Des expériences ont démontré qu'il existe une limite de vitesse optimale qui améliore les performances du trafic, et qui réduit la longueur de la file d'attente au feu de signalisation.Enfin, une solution pour le contrôle coordonné de l'infrastructure a été proposée. La synchronisation des feux de signalisation sur les grands axes de circulation a été prouvée efficace pour réduire le temps de parcours. Notre analyse a démontré qu'un problème d'optimisation peut être formalisé pour prendre en compte également les aspects énergétiques. Des expériences approfondies dans un simulateur de trafic microscopique ont montré qu'il existe une corrélation entre la progression du trafic et ses performances. La stratégie de contrôle proposée a montré qu'une réduction significative de la consommation d'énergie peut être atteinte, en éliminant presque complètement les arrêts et le temps d'arrêt, sans affecter le temps de parcours. / The problem of energy-aware traffic management in urban environment is addressed. Such traffic management aims at reducing vehicle stops, accelerations, energy consumption, and ultimately congestion. The eco-management in urban traffic networks may be divided in two broad categories: vehicle-side control and infrastructure-side control. Both control domains can feature isolated or coordinated characteristics, depending on the type of information used in the optimization.The vehicle-side traffic management influences each single vehicle according to its own characteristics and position. Isolated vehicle control aims primarily at optimizing the powertrain and/or the driving profile of the vehicles, possibly using information about the road characteristics, but without communicating with the other agents of the traffic network. Coordinated vehicle control makes use of communication among vehicles and with the infrastructure in order to achieve larger benefits in terms of energy consumption and traffic fluidity.The infrastructure-side management, on the other hand, influences traffic lights and road side panels in order to improve the performance of the traffic as a whole. Isolated infrastructure control regulates essentially the traffic lights at a single signalized intersection, or the speed limits in a single stretch of road, without taking into account the interactions with the neighboring junctions and/or road sections. Coordinated infrastructure control overcomes this limitation by using information about traffic conditions in other road sections to alleviate congestion.The contributions of this work to the energy-aware traffic management may be summarized as follows.Firstly, a solution for the coordinated vehicle control has been proposed, in which communication with the infrastructure is exploited to reduce energy consumption. In particular, the traffic lights timings are assumed to be communicated to the vehicle and known, and the vehicle is suggested an optimal speed to drive through a sequence of signalized intersections without stopping, while following a minimum-energy trajectory. The proposed strategy, independently applied to each vehicle, has been tested in a microscopic traffic simulator in order to assess the impact on the traffic performance. The analysis has demonstrated that the energy consumption and the number of stops can be drastically reduced without affecting the travel time.Then, a solution for the isolated infrastructure control has been proposed. A macroscopic urban traffic model has been introduced, and the variable speed limits have been used as actuation to improve traffic performance. In particular, the analysis has been carried out at saturated traffic conditions, with given and fixed traffic lights scheduling. The optimization aims at reducing the energy consumption in trade-off with the average travel time of the vehicles in the considered road section. Experiments have demonstrated that there exists an optimal speed limit that improves traffic performance and reduces the length of the queue at the traffic light.Lastly, a solution for the coordinated infrastructure control has been proposed. Traffic lights coordination on arterials has been proved to be effective in terms of traffic delay reduction. Our analysis has demonstrated that an optimization problem can be cast to take into account also energetic aspects. Extensive experiments in a microscopic traffic simulator have showed that a correlation exists between traffic progression and traffic performance indexes, such as energy consumption, travel time, idling time, and number of stops. The proposed control strategy has showed that a significant reduction of energy consumption can be achieved, almost completely eliminating number of stops and idling time, without affecting the travel time.

Die vorliegende Dissertationsschrift widmet sich zwei Zielen: Mittels Induktionsschleifen-Detektoren einerseits die Verkehrsregelung an Knotenpunkten durch die Minimierung von Fahrzeughalten zu verbessern, und andererseits eine Veränderung der Verkehrsqualität durch die Schätzung von Kfz-Wartezeiten automatisiert zu erheben. Im ersten Teil wird ein modellbasiertes Steuerverfahren entwickelt, das Grünzeiten verkehrsabhängig und lokal anpasst. Es kann sehr gut in eine übergeordnete Steuerung zur Koordinierung in Verkehrsnetzen eingebunden werden und überlässt dieser die Optimierung von Phasenfolgen, Umlauf- und Versatzzeiten. Um auch bei hohen Auslastungen Kapazitäten bestmöglich zu nutzen, priorisiert es zunächst die Leerung von Warteschlangen. Anschließend erfolgt die Anpassung der Grünzeiten zwischen einer minimalen und maximalen Dauer so, dass Fahrzeughalte minimiert werden. Dafür werden Detektoren in ausreichender Entfernung im Zufluss einer Kreuzung verwendet, um Fahrzeugankünfte an der Haltelinie für die aktuelle und die nächste Phase zu prognostizieren. Bei der sich anschließenden Bilanzierung potenzieller Fahrzeughalte und der Wahl des günstigsten Umschaltzeitpunktes kann auf zusätzliche Modellannahmen verzichtet werden. Die Simulationsergebnisse zeigen, dass bei einer Minimierung der Fahrzeughalte gleichzeitig eine Reduktion von Wartezeiten möglich ist. Im zweiten Teil werden Kfz-Wartezeiten auf Basis der meist bereits vorhandenen Induktionsschleifen-Detektoren im Zufluss und im Abfluss einer Kreuzung geschätzt. Dafür werden die Zeitpunkte der Fahrzeugüberfahrten an einem Zufluss- und einem Abflussquerschnitt getrennt gemessen werden. Aus ihnen wird jeweils ein mittlerer Überfahrzeitpunkt ermittelt und nach Berücksichtigung der freien Fahrzeit eine mittlere Wartezeit geschätzt. Messintervalle an beiden Querschnitten, die um die mittlere freie Fahrzeit versetzt sind, sowie eine unbedingte Warteschlangenleerung am Ende einer Messung sollen sicherstellen, dass potenziell dieselben Fahrzeuge erfasst werden. Auf eine Fahrzeugwiedererkennung und damit auf eine Ausrüstung mit zusätzlicher Technik kann dadurch verzichtet werden. Damit sich das Verfahren für den Praxiseinsatz eignet, muss es möglichst robust gegenüber zufälligen Detektorfehlern sein. Dafür wird ein Fehlermodell entwickelt und mögliche Abweichungen gegenüber einer korrekten Messung untersucht. Aufgrund der unabhängigen Berechnung von mittleren Überfahrzeiten aus der getrennten Messung im Zufluss und im Abfluss zeigt sich, dass zufällige Fehler nicht zu systematischen Abweichungen in der Wartezeitschätzung führen.

The aim of this master's thesis is to develop a simulation system using the Siemens sX traffic controllers configurations. The system is composed of two separate applications. The first one uses the existing platform SUMO as a source of simulation data and is also used as a server. The second is a web-based application for creating and editing simulation situations and also for visualisation of simulation data from the server. The introduction to the topic of traffic engineering and the dynamic traffic control is discussed first. The description of the design and implementation of the simulation application directly follows. In the next part the design and implementation of the web-based application  is discussed. The last part of the thesis describes the testing of the whole system.

The main reason of doing this master thesis is reconstruction crossroad Pisarecka – Veslarska in Brno with growing traffic intensity up every year. Obviously had to be observed the best safety draw around the walking and bicycle area. This crossroad is using like transfer place. The result of this work is to elaborate of the situation including charasteristic cut sections and longitudinal profile of main road. Part of this work is an estimate of the financial cost to realize this building.

The main task of this thesis is to verify the line management of traffic. A microsimulation model of traffic was made in program for traffic simulation called Aimsun. The data from radar measuring have been processed and then put into the model. Some of parameters in model were adapted to meet the reality on the road. Finally, there have been suggested more suggestions in this model and the efficiency of the solutions was evaluated.

Los tréboles son infraestructuras diseñadas para mejorar la circulación y seguridad vehicular en las intersecciones. El trébol analizado se define como una intersección vial a desnivel parcial de tres lazos y cuatro ramales directos; el cual, está comprendido por la vía expresa metropolitana Javier Prado y la vía expresa nacional Panamericana. Esta investigación se realizó mediante un análisis de riesgo donde se obtuvo un nivel de riesgo intolerable identificado en los conductores que invaden las vías adyacentes; los cuales, interrumpen el flujo vehicular y pueden ocasionar colisiones. Además, se identificó problemas en su comportamiento operacional, especialmente en los lazos que confluyen con las vías principales. Esto debido al ingreso desordenado de vehículos, inadecuada dosificación vehicular y maniobras peligrosas realizadas por los conductores que tratan de ingresar a la via principal. La presente investigación propone un sistema de semaforización inteligente con la metodología Ramp metering en base al algoritmo ALINEA. El cual, ordena, mediante una dosificación vehicular en tiempo real, el ingreso de los vehículos hacía las vías principales. Además, disminuye la probabilidad de colisiones ya que aplica un control de ingreso adaptativo. La propuesta logra que la velocidad promedio se incremente en 15,8% y que los tiempos de viaje se reduzcan en un máximo de 19.1%. Adicionalmente, existe un leve incremento de 30 Veh/h en el aforo vehicular del trébol. A partir de lo observado, se demuestra que la optimización de parámetros individuales genera una sinergia que influye positivamente en el comportamiento operacional del trébol. / Clovers are infrastructures designed to improve traffic and vehicular safety at intersections. The analyzed cloverleaf is a partially uneven road intersection with three loops and four direct branches located in the Javier Prado highway and the Panamericana highway in the city of Lima. The research will base on a risk analysis with an intolerable level of risk identified in drivers who invaded adjacent roads. Interrupt the flow of vehicles and can cause chain collisions. Also, it was possible to identify problems in their operational behavior, especially in the loops that converge with the main roads. Due to the disorderly entry of vehicles, inadequate vehicle dosing, the formation of lines in cloverleaf loops, increased probability of collisions and dangerous maneuvers carried out by drivers trying to enter the main road. The present research proposes an intelligent traffic light system with the Ramp metering methodology based on the ALINEA algorithm. Which, through real-time vehicle dosing, orders the entry of vehicles onto the main roads. Besides, it reduces the probability of collisions since it applies adaptive entry control. The research achieves an increased by 15.8% in the average speed, and a maximum of 19.1% reduces that travel times. Additionally, there is a slight increase of 30 Veh / h in clover's vehicle capacity. Furthermore, it shows that the optimization of individual parameters generates a synergy that positively influences the operational behavior of the clover. / Tesis

La intersección de las avenidas Salaverry, Cádiz y Jirón Huiracocha, en el límite de los distritos de San Isidro y Jesús María en Lima, se le considera de gran demanda vehicular, como peatonal, en donde la ausencia de pasos peatonales y ciclovías protegidas, y congestión vehicular generan sensación de inseguridad e ineficiencia en el sistema de tránsito urbano. Debido a esto, se realizó el estudio de tráfico y se planteó una Intersección Diamante Divergente (DDI, por sus siglas en inglés) como solución a esta perspectiva. El diseño geométrico, calibración y validación se realizaron con el programa Vissim 9 en búsqueda de la más eficiente alternativa en cuanto operatividad en una DDI. Para ello se obtuvieron los datos topográficos, toma de datos y extrapolación de los flujos vehiculares existentes. La propuesta elegida no satisfizo las expectativas planteadas al inicio de la investigación, por ello se modificó la operatividad existente con la finalidad de crear un entorno urbanístico cotidiano. Una intersección con una coordinación semafórica entre ambos cruces (Avenida Cádiz y Jirón Huiracocha) genera eficiencia y seguridad a los usuarios. La primera modificación fue realizar una apertura en la Avenida Salaverry con dirección al Jirón Huiracocha, el diseño de un ciclo semafórico y la exclusividad de cruce peatonal y ciclista. Por último, en cuanto la intersección con la Avenida Cádiz, se optimizó la seguridad de las ciclovías existentes al evitar el cruce directo con las arterias viales. Con estas modificaciones, se logró mejorar el sistema en un 7% para operatividad vehicular y un 70% en cuanto a los flujos peatonales. De esto se concluye que los tiempos de viaje, demoras y longitudes de cola vehicular se reducen frente a la situación actual. Además, el flujo de todos los usuarios se desarrolla en armonía, sin elevados tiempos de espera o elevada demanda vial en ciertos tramos del caso de estudio. / The intersection of Salaverry - Cadiz Avenues and Huiracocha street, in the limits of San Isidro and Jesús María districts in Lima, is known by its vehicular and pedestrian massive demand, where the absence of protected pedestrian crossings, bicycle path and traffic congestion generate insecurity and inefficiency in the local transit system. Due to this, the traffic study was carried out by a Diverging Diamond Intersection (DDI) as an alternative to enhance these shortcomings. The geometric design, calibration and validation were developed with Vissim 9 modeling program in search of the most efficient alternative in terms of operability in a DDI, according to its traffic light cycle and geometric design. As inputs parameters were necessary topographic data, data collection and extrapolation of existing vehicle flows. The chosen proposal did not reach the expectations at the beginning of the research; therefore, the existing traffic operability was modified in order to create a daily urban environment. An intersection with coordinated traffic lights between both intersections (Cádiz-Salaverry Avenue and Huiracocha Street) generates efficiency and safety for users. The first modification was to make an opening on Salaverry Avenue in the direction of Huiracocha street, the design of a traffic light cycle and the exclusivity path of pedestrian and bicycle. Finally, regarding the intersection at Cadiz-Salaverry Avenues, the safety of the existing bicycle roads was optimized by avoiding direct crossing on these road arteries. / Tesis

Un problema considerable en Lima es el congestionamiento vehicular, debido al crecimiento demográfico continuo, el centralismo, la escasa planificación urbanística y el crecimiento sostenido del parque automotor. La presente tesis se centra en la intersección de la carretera Panamericana Norte con la avenida Huandoy distrito de Los Olivos. La realidad problemática presente en la intersección es la gran variabilidad del flujo peatonal y vehicular bajo un sistema de semáforo de tiempo fijo. Por ende, la consecuencia de este tipo de semáforos aumenta los tiempos de cruce peatonal, es decir el tiempo que demoran los peatones en cruzar la vía y las longitudes de colas vehiculares. La investigación propone el diseño de un ciclo semafórico completamente actuado cuyo objetivo es captar la densidad de peatones en las islas de refugio y dar prioridad de paso de acuerdo con las necesidades del entorno. Para ello, se realizó un estudio de identificación de los volúmenes, tanto de peatones como de vehículos y en los que al realizar los flujogramas para un intervalo de 15 minutos se demostró la alta variabilidad de volúmenes presentes en una hora. El modelo de control de prioridad óptimo se simula y valida. Así mismo, se hace uso del módulo VisVAP del programa Vissim, para asignar la condicional de cruce. Finalmente. los resultados demuestran que, se redujo el tiempo de cruce peatonal en el sentido oeste a este en 6.38% y en 20.84% la longitud de cola vehicular. Además, se mejoró la geometría vial, esto permitió mayor área para la isla de refugio. / A major problem in Lima is vehicle congestion, due to continued population growth, centralism, poor urban planning and the growth of the automotive fleet. This thesis focuses on the intersection of the Panamerican highway with Huandoy avenue in the Los Olivos district. The problematic reality present at the intersection is the traffic light at fixed time as a traffic regulator. Owing to this, the system is inefficient for the great variability of pedestrian and vehicular volumes in the study area. And the consequence of this type directly prejudice pedestrian crossing times and vehicle queue lengths. The research proposes the design of a fully actuated signal control whose objective is to detect the density of pedestrian on the refuge islands and prioritize the passage according to needs of the environment. To do this, a study was carried out to identify the volumes, both of pedestrians and vehicles, and when performing the flow charts for a n interval of 15 minutes, the high variability of volumes present in one hour was demonstrated. The optimal priority control model is simulated and validated. Likewise, the VisVap module of the Vissim9 program is used to assign the crossing condition. Finally, the results show that the pedestrian crossing time was reduced by 6.38% and the length of vehicle queues by 20.84 %. In addition, the road geometry was improved, this allowed more area for the refuge island. / Tesis