ABSTRACT ROSS CARTER Traffic-related Pollution Exposure Assessment of Fulton County and Atlanta Public Schools (K-12) in Proximity to Major Highways and Expressways Background: A number of studies have linked traffic-related pollutant exposures to asthma in children. Health conditions such as asthma can contribute to school absenteeism and missed learning opportunities as well as place a major burden on health resources. Although children spend a significant amount of time in school, few states have adopted school siting policies that prevent the placement of schools near major highways. Furthermore, schools often fail to take appropriate steps (e.g. adequate HVAC and air filters) to address indoor air quality concerns for students. The study was designed to identify the number of schools and the number of children in Fulton County and Atlanta Public Schools that attend schools in proximity to major highways and expressways where they are likely to have greater exposure to traffic pollution. The results of this study can be used to build an evidence base for stricter school siting guidelines, for planning safe routes to school, and for mitigation strategies to limit pollutant exposures for children who attend high-risk schools. Methods: Highway, expressway, county, and school shapefiles were overlaid using ArcMap in ArcGIS version 10.1 (ERSI, USA). A circular buffer with radius 0.5 mile (~ 800 m) was created for each school. ArcMap geospatial tools were used to identify major highways and expressways with these buffers. Results: A total of 119 of the 225 schools in Fulton County and Atlanta Public school districts were identified as being located within 0.5 miles of a major highway or expressway. Of the 119 schools meeting the intersection criteria, 72.2% (86 of 119 schools) were designated Title I. Conclusion: Approximately half of schools were located within 0.5 miles of a major highway or expressway. This may result in elevated levels of traffic-related air pollution on the school campuses and potential increased exposure for students. Proper air filter selection, HVAC maintenance, and air quality programs as well as land use, planning, and assessment measures are recommended for these schools to help mitigate exposures.

Introdução São Paulo é uma das maiores cidades da América Latina, com quase 11 milhões de habitantes e cerca de 6 milhões de veículos. Embora o tráfego seja a mais importante fonte de poluição atmosférica, poucos estudos investigaram a relação da poluição veicular com a saúde da população. A maioria dos estudos analisou os efeitos da poluição do ar à saúde utilizando valores médios de poluição ambiental para toda a área da cidade, os quais não evidenciam os gradientes de exposição na área intra-urbana. Objetivos- Avaliar a exposição da população à poluição relacionada ao tráfego e sua associação com as internações por doenças respiratórias de crianças e adolescentes de 0 a 18 anos. Métodos As concentrações de CO, NOx e PM10, foram calculadas a partir do modelo de dispersão CALINE-4 para os períodos de verão (Janeiro) e Inverno (Julho). Os casos de internação hospitalar por doenças respiratórias (AIH + CIH) foram georreferenciados por local de residência. O setor censitário do IBG foi considerado como unidade de análise. Um modelo de regressão logística foi usado, para estimar a associação entre exposição à poluição relacionada ao tráfego e hospitalização por doenças respiratórias, e controlado pelo IDH como indicador sócio econômico. Resultados Do ponto de vista espacial, os poluentes veiculares estudados tiveram maior concentração na área central do centro expandido de São Paulo. Do ponto de vista temporal, as maiores concentrações foram observadas no inverno. A poluição veicular estava diretamente associada às internações de crianças e adolescentes (0-18) anos por doenças respiratórias. Crianças e adolescentes que moravam em setores censitários classificados no 4º quartil de CO no período de inverno tiveram chance 80 por cento maior de serem internadas por doenças respiratórias. Conclusões Os poluentes veiculares analisados aumentam a chance de crianças e adolescentes (0-18 anos) serem internadas por doenças respiratórias. As condições socioeconômicas, avaliadas pelo IDH, também aumentam as chances de internação. O método usado neste estudo é importante para avaliações em micro-escala da relação entre os poluentes veiculares e a saúde da população. Outras cidades brasileiras ou cidades de países em desenvolvimento podem se beneficiar desta abordagem, dado que modelos são mais baratos e rápidos que campanhas de amostragem de poluentes atmosféricos ou aquisição/manutenção de estações de monitoramento da qualidade do ar / Introduction- Sao Paulo is one of the largest cities in Latin America, with almost 11 million inhabitants and around 6 million vehicles. Although traffic is the main source of air pollution, few studies investigated the relationship between vehicle pollution and health outcomes. Most studies analyzed health effects using average concentrations of environmental pollution for the whole city, which cannot give evidence for intra-urban gradients of exposure. Objectives- To evaluate the populations exposure to traffic-related air pollution and its association with hospital admission for respiratory diseases among children and adolescents aged 0-18 years. Methods - Concentrations of CO, NOx and PM10 were modeled using CALINE-4 dispersion model, in two periods: summer (January) and winter (June). Hospitalizations due to respiratory diseases (by private and public assistance) were geocoded by the residence address. IBGEs census sectors were considered as unit of analysis. A logistic regression model was used to estimate the association between exposure to traffic-related air pollution and hospitalization for respiratory disease which, allowing for HDI as a socioeconomical indicator. Results- Spatially, pollutants presented higher concentration at the central area of the Expanded Center of Sao Paulo city. Temporally, higher concentrations were observed at winter periods. Traffic-related pollutants was directly associated with hospitalization for respiratory disease among children and adolescents aged 0-18 years. Children and adolescents who lived in census sectors ranked in the 4º quartile of CO in the winter period had 80 per cent greater chance of being hospitalized for respiratory diseases. Conclusions- Traffic-related pollutants increase the chance of children being hospitalized for respiratory diseases. Socioeconomic conditions (evaluated by the HDI) also raised the chance of hospitalization. The method used in this study is important for micro-scale evaluations of the relationship between vehicular pollutants and population health. Other Brazilian cities or cities from developing countries may benefit from this approach, since models are less expensive and faster than air quality monitoring campaigns or acquisition/maintenance of air quality monitoring stations

Introdução São Paulo é uma das maiores cidades da América Latina, com quase 11 milhões de habitantes e cerca de 6 milhões de veículos. Embora o tráfego seja a mais importante fonte de poluição atmosférica, poucos estudos investigaram a relação da poluição veicular com a saúde da população. A maioria dos estudos analisou os efeitos da poluição do ar à saúde utilizando valores médios de poluição ambiental para toda a área da cidade, os quais não evidenciam os gradientes de exposição na área intra-urbana. Objetivos- Avaliar a exposição da população à poluição relacionada ao tráfego e sua associação com as internações por doenças respiratórias de crianças e adolescentes de 0 a 18 anos. Métodos As concentrações de CO, NOx e PM10, foram calculadas a partir do modelo de dispersão CALINE-4 para os períodos de verão (Janeiro) e Inverno (Julho). Os casos de internação hospitalar por doenças respiratórias (AIH + CIH) foram georreferenciados por local de residência. O setor censitário do IBG foi considerado como unidade de análise. Um modelo de regressão logística foi usado, para estimar a associação entre exposição à poluição relacionada ao tráfego e hospitalização por doenças respiratórias, e controlado pelo IDH como indicador sócio econômico. Resultados Do ponto de vista espacial, os poluentes veiculares estudados tiveram maior concentração na área central do centro expandido de São Paulo. Do ponto de vista temporal, as maiores concentrações foram observadas no inverno. A poluição veicular estava diretamente associada às internações de crianças e adolescentes (0-18) anos por doenças respiratórias. Crianças e adolescentes que moravam em setores censitários classificados no 4º quartil de CO no período de inverno tiveram chance 80 por cento maior de serem internadas por doenças respiratórias. Conclusões Os poluentes veiculares analisados aumentam a chance de crianças e adolescentes (0-18 anos) serem internadas por doenças respiratórias. As condições socioeconômicas, avaliadas pelo IDH, também aumentam as chances de internação. O método usado neste estudo é importante para avaliações em micro-escala da relação entre os poluentes veiculares e a saúde da população. Outras cidades brasileiras ou cidades de países em desenvolvimento podem se beneficiar desta abordagem, dado que modelos são mais baratos e rápidos que campanhas de amostragem de poluentes atmosféricos ou aquisição/manutenção de estações de monitoramento da qualidade do ar / Introduction- Sao Paulo is one of the largest cities in Latin America, with almost 11 million inhabitants and around 6 million vehicles. Although traffic is the main source of air pollution, few studies investigated the relationship between vehicle pollution and health outcomes. Most studies analyzed health effects using average concentrations of environmental pollution for the whole city, which cannot give evidence for intra-urban gradients of exposure. Objectives- To evaluate the populations exposure to traffic-related air pollution and its association with hospital admission for respiratory diseases among children and adolescents aged 0-18 years. Methods - Concentrations of CO, NOx and PM10 were modeled using CALINE-4 dispersion model, in two periods: summer (January) and winter (June). Hospitalizations due to respiratory diseases (by private and public assistance) were geocoded by the residence address. IBGEs census sectors were considered as unit of analysis. A logistic regression model was used to estimate the association between exposure to traffic-related air pollution and hospitalization for respiratory disease which, allowing for HDI as a socioeconomical indicator. Results- Spatially, pollutants presented higher concentration at the central area of the Expanded Center of Sao Paulo city. Temporally, higher concentrations were observed at winter periods. Traffic-related pollutants was directly associated with hospitalization for respiratory disease among children and adolescents aged 0-18 years. Children and adolescents who lived in census sectors ranked in the 4º quartile of CO in the winter period had 80 per cent greater chance of being hospitalized for respiratory diseases. Conclusions- Traffic-related pollutants increase the chance of children being hospitalized for respiratory diseases. Socioeconomic conditions (evaluated by the HDI) also raised the chance of hospitalization. The method used in this study is important for micro-scale evaluations of the relationship between vehicular pollutants and population health. Other Brazilian cities or cities from developing countries may benefit from this approach, since models are less expensive and faster than air quality monitoring campaigns or acquisition/maintenance of air quality monitoring stations

<p>Kvalitet vazduha u urbanim sredinama predstavlja jedan od glavnih uzroka zdravstvenih problema. Prema podacima SZO u svetu se godi&scaron;nje usled zagađenja vazduha u urbanim sredinama dogodi preko 2,7 miliona smrtnih slučajeva. Procenjuje se da najbolji indikator za procenu veličine zdravstvenog rizika od zagađenja vazduha jeste koncentracija suspendovanih čestica PM2,5 u vazduhu životne sredine. Cilj: Proceniti uticaj suspendovanih čestica PM2,5 iz vazduha životne sredine na ukupan mortalitet, kardiovaskularni i respiratorni bolnički morbiditet odraslog stanovni&scaron;tva Grada Novog Sada. Takođe, cilj istraživanja je bio da se i utvrdi koncentracija i hemijski sastav suspendovanih čestica PM2,5 u vazduhu životne sredine na teritoriji Grada Novog Sada, na dnevnom i godi&scaron;njem nivou, uzimajući u obzir i uticaj meteorolo&scaron;kih parametara. Metod: Istraživanje je sprovedeno kao prospektivna studija vremenske serije podataka o kvalitetu vazduha, meteorolo&scaron;kim parametrima i zdravstvenim ishodima, u intervalima od najmanje 30 dana tokom sva četiri godi&scaron;nja doba 2017. godine. Uzorkovanje i određivanje koncentracije i hemijskog sastava čestica PM2,5 u skladu sa propisanim standardnim metodama, je obavljeno na mernim mestima u životnoj sredini Grada Novog Sada, koja reprezentuju uticaj saobraćaja i urbanog pozadinskog područja na zagađenje vazduha životne sredine. Primenjen je Lenschow pristup za kvantifikaciju veličine doprinosa saobraćaja porastu koncentracije suspendovanih čestica PM2,5 u vazduhu životne sredine. Podaci o meteorolo&scaron;kim parametrima (temperatura vazduha, relativna vlažnost vazduha i brzina vetra), su preuzeti od Republičkog hidrometeorolo&scaron;kog zavoda Srbije. Podaci o zdravstvenim ishodima (dnevni broj umrlih i hospitalizovanih zbog kardiovaskularnih i respiratornih bolesti), za stanovni&scaron;tvo starije od 18 godina, čije mesto stanovanja pripada teritoriji Grada Novog Sada, obezbeđeni su od strane Centra za informatiku i biostatistiku u zdravstvu Instituta za javno zdravlje Vojvodine. Za procenu uticaja nezavisnih promenljivih na zavisne (ukupan mortalitet / bolnički morbiditet) primenjen je generalizovani linearni model regresione analize za vremenske serije podataka (Poason). Rezultati: Prosečna godi&scaron;nja koncentracija suspendovanih čestica PM2,5 iz vazduha životne sredine na teritoriji Grada Novog Sada je iznosila 30,27 &mu;g/m3, a srednje dnevne koncentracije 8-79&nbsp; g/m3. Približno 30% varijabilnosti srednjih dnevnih koncentracije suspendovanih čestica PM2,5 se može objasniti lokalnim meteorolo&scaron;kim uslovima. Hemijski sastav čestica na području Grada Novog Sada u najvećem procentu čini ekvivalent karbonatne frakcije čestica, zatim sekundarni neorganski aerosol i rastvorljiva organska frakcija, dok su joni rastvorljivi u vodi (kalcijum, hloridi, natrijum, kalijum i magnezijum) zastupljeni u najmanjem procentu. Prisutni izvori zagađenja vazduha životne sredine na području Grada Novog Sada su procesi sagorevanja fosilnih goriva i biomase, saobraćaj, mineralna (zemlji&scaron;na) pra&scaron;ina i sekundarno zagađenje regionalnog porekla. Doprinos saobraćaja porastu prosečne godi&scaron;nje koncentracije suspendovanih čestica PM2,5 je iznosio 40%. Masena koncentracija čestica PM2,5, kao i hemijski sastav čestica (ekvivalent karbonatne frakcije, rastvorljiva organska frakcija, joni kalijuma i kalcijuma) doprinose umiranju i oboljevanju odraslog stanovni&scaron;tva Grada Novog Sada. Na uticaj masene koncentracije i hemijskog sastava čestica PM2,5 najosetljivije su žene i stanovni&scaron;tvo starosti &ge; 65 godina, kao i mu&scaron;karci u pogledu uticaja ekvivalenta karbonatne frakcije čestica PM2,5. Zaključak: Dobijeni rezultati po prvi put opisuju zdravstveni uticaj masene koncentracije i hemijskog sastava čestica PM2,5 na području Grada Novog Sada, odnosno kvantifikuju rizik za ukupan mortalilteta i kardiovaskualrni i respiratorni morbiditet. Razumevanje uticaja suspendovanih čestica PM2,5 na oboljevanje i umiranje stanovni&scaron;tva, stratifikovanih prema starosnoj i polnoj strukturi, uz identifikaciju mogućih izvora zađenja vazduha na području Grada Novog Sada, predstavlja osnovu za razvoj javnozdravstvene politike u cilju unapređenja zdravlja stanovni&scaron;tva Grada Novog Sada.</p> / <p>Urban ambient air pollution is one of the leading causes of health problems. According to WHO data, over 2.7 million deaths occur in urban areas annually due to urban air pollution. Particulate matter PM2.5 is estimated to be the best indicator for assessing the magnitude of the health risk induces by ambient air pollution. Aim: To assess the impact of PM2.5 on total mortality, cardiovascular and respiratory hospital morbidity of the adult population of the City of Novi Sad. Also, the aim of the study was to determine the concentration and chemical composition of ambient PM 2.5 particles in the territory of the City of Novi Sad, on daily and annual bases, taking into account the impact of meteorological parameters. Method: The study was conducted as a prospective, a time series study of of data on air quality, meteorological parameters and health outcomes, at intervals of at least 30 days during all four seasons of 2017. Sampling and determination of the mass concentration and chemical composition of PM2.5 particles in accordance with the prescribed standard methods, it was performed at sampling stations in the City of Novi Sad, representing the impact of traffic and urban background impact on environmental air pollution. A Lenschow approach was used to quantify the magnitude of traffic contribution to the increase of ambient PM2.5 mass concentration. Meteorological data (air temperature, relative humidity and wind velocity) were taken from the Republic Hydrometeorological Institute of Serbia. Data on health outcomes (daily number of deaths and hospitalizations due to cardiovascular and respiratory diseases) for the population older than 18, residing within the territory of the City of Novi Sad, have been provided by the Centre for Informatics and Biostatistics, Institute of Public Health of Vojvodina. To evaluate the impact of independent variables on dependent (total mortality/hospital morbidity), a generalized linear regression model for time series data (Poisson) was applied. Results: The average annual mass concentration of PM2.5 in the territory of the City of Novi Sad was 30.27&mu;g/m3, while mean daily concentrations were 8- 79&mu;g/m3. Approximately 30% of the variability in mean daily concentrations of PM2.5 particles can be explained with local meteorological conditions. The chemical composition of PM2.5 in the area of Novi Sad is to the a great extent the equivalent of the carbonate fraction of the particles, then the secondary inorganic aerosol and the soluble organic fraction, while the water-soluble ions (calcium, chlorides, sodium, potassium and magnesium) are present in the lowest percentage. The sources of ambient air pollution in the area of the City of Novi Sad were the combustion of fossil fuels and biomass, traffic, mineral (soil dust) and secondary pollution of regional origin. Contribution of traffic to the increase of the average annual mass concentrations of PM2.5 particles was 40%. PM2.5 particle mass concentration, as well as the chemical composition of the particles (carbonate fraction equivalent, soluble organic fraction, potassium and calcium ions) contribute to the deaths and diseases of the adult population of the City of Novi Sad. Women and the population aged &ge;65, were more susceptible to mass concentration and chemical composition of PM2.5 related deaths and diseases, as well as men according to the impact of the equivalents of carbonate fractions of PM2.5. Conclusion: The results obtained show for the first time the health effects of mass concentration and chemical composition of PM2.5 particles in the City of Novi Sad, i.e. they quantify the risk for total mortality and cardiovascular and respiratory morbidity. Understanding the impact of suspended particles PM2.5 on population mortality and morbidity, stratified by age and sex structure, along with identifying of possible air pollution sources is the basis for the development of public health policies aimed at improving the population health in the City of Novi Sad.</p>