The global re-emergence of TB and other mycobacterial infections have underscored the need for a thorough investigation of the biology of the causative agent, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, at the molecular level. The peculiar features of the bacterium such as slow growth rate, dormancy, unique cell wall composition and resistance towards phagocytosis by macrophages demands a detailed understanding of different essential molecular processes including transcription in this genus. Sequencing of several mycobacterial genomes provided an impetus for understanding the gene function and regulation of this formidable pathogen. Transcriptional regulation is one of the major mechanisms controlling gene expression. While a number of transcription units, promoters, sigma factors, and gene functions were identified and characterized, key features of transcription process are yet to be understood. The current study aims to understand some of the facets of transcription initiation and elongation in mycobacteria. The thesis is divided into five chapters. Chapter 1 introduces the bacterial transcription process. It starts with the description of the central molecule in transcription -the RNA polymerase (RNAP) and its catalytic mechanism. In the next section, each step of the transcription initiation, elongation and termination has been discussed. The mechanistic details as well as the different cellular factors involved in the regulation of the transcription have been discussed. The final part gives an overview of the transcription machinery of the mycobacteria, describing the promoter specificity and regulation of different sigma factors and other transcription factors known till date in mycobacteria. The scope and the objectives of the thesis are presented at the end of this chapter. In Chapter 2, a method of purification of RNAP from mycobacteria for optimized promoter -polymerase interactions is described. In vitro transcription analysis is important to understand the mechanism of transcription. Various assays for the analysis of initiation, elongation and termination form the basis for better understanding of the process. Purified RNAP with high specific activity is necessary to carry out a variety of these specific reactions. The RNAP purified from Mycobacterium smegmatis from exponential phase showed low σA-promoter specificity in promoter -polymerase interaction studies. This is due to the presence of a large number of sigma factors during exponential phase and under-representation of σA required for house - keeping transcription. In vivo reconstitution of RNAP holoenzyme with σA and its purification procedure which resulted in a holoenzyme with stoichiometric σA content is described in this chapter. The reconstituted holoenzyme showed enhanced promoter -specific binding and transcription activity compared to the enzyme isolated using standard procedure. Chapter 3 is aimed at the comparison of promoter - specific events during transcription initiation in mycobacteria. DNA -protein interactions that occur during transcription initiation play an important role in regulating gene expression. To initiate transcription, RNAP binds to promoters in a sequence -specific fashion. This is followed by a series of steps governed by the equilibrium binding and kinetic rate constants, which in turn determine the overall efficiency of the transcription process. The first detailed kinetic analysis of promoter - RNAP interactions during transcription initiation in the σA-dependent promoters PrrnAPCL1, PrrnB and Pgyr of M. smegmatis are presented in this chapter. The promoters show comparable equilibrium binding affinity but differ significantly in open complex formation, kinetics of isomerization and promoter clearance. Furthermore, the two rrn promoters exhibit varied kinetic properties during transcription initiation and appear to be subjected to different modes of regulation. In addition to the distinct kinetic patterns, each one of the house -keeping promoters studied has its own rate-limiting step in the initiation pathway, indicating the differences in their regulation. Moving the focus of the thesis from transcription initiation to elongation, a transcript cleavage factor of M. tuberculosis has been characterized in Chapter 4. After initiation of transcription, a number of proteins participate during elongation and termination by modifying the properties of the RNAP. Gre proteins are one such class of transcription elongation factors which are conserved across bacteria. They regulate transcription by binding near the secondary channel of RNAP, projecting their N-terminal coiled-coil domain into the active center and stimulating hydrolysis of the newly synthesized RNA by RNAP in the backtracked elongation complexes. Rv1080c is a putative gre factor homolog (MtbGre) present in M. tuberculosis.The protein enhanced the efficiency of promoter clearance by lowering the abortive transcription and also rescued the arrested and paused elongation complexes efficiently in the GC rich mycobacterial template. The Gre factor of M. smegmatis encoded by the gene MSMEG_5263 also showed biochemical properties similar to the M. tuberculosis protein. Although the mycobacterial Gre is similar in domain organization and shared the key residues for catalysis and RNAP interaction with Escherichia coli Gre proteins, it could not complement the E. coli strain deficient in Gre factors. Moreover, MtbGre failed to rescue E. coli RNAP stalled elongation complexes, indicating the importance of specific protein - protein interactions for transcript cleavage. Decrease in the level of MtbGre also reduced the bacterial survival by several fold indicating its essential role in mycobacteria and suggesting that a single Gre copes up with the burden of transcription fidelity of the genome. Chapter 5 describes the studies carried out to identify Gre factor homologs in mycobacteria and deciphering their function during transcription. Gre factors are members of a growing family of proteins which regulate RNAP through secondary channel. Apart from the Gre factor, putative members of this class of proteins are identified in both M. smegmatis and M. tuberculosis.The closest homologue of the canonical Gre factor of M. tuberculosis in its genome is Rv3788. The protein has Gre factor like domain organization and possess the key acidic residues required for transcript cleavage activity and the putative hydrophobic RNAP interacting residues in the C-terminus similar to MtbGre. Despite having these common features, Rv3788 did not stimulate transcript cleavage. In contrast, it turns out to be a transcription inhibitor by preventing the binding of NTPs to the enzyme. The transcription inhibition is not promoter specific, and is mediated by its binding to RNAP through the secondary channel with its N-terminus coiled coil domain. Like M. tuberculosis, the fast growing non-pathogenic mycobacteria M. smegmatis also has an ORF (MSMEG_6292) which is homologous to its canonical Gre factor and it interacts with RNAP in a similar manner. However, this protein did not exert any transcript cleavage or inhibitory activities but could compete with the Gre factor for binding to RNAP. The Gre factor homologs in mycobacteria may be involved in regulation by inhibiting transcription or by blocking the RNAP secondary channel from other RNAP active site modulators.

La régulation de la transcription est un processus complexe qui a évolué pendant des millions d’années permettant ainsi aux cellules de s’adapter aux changements environnementaux. Notre laboratoire étudie le rôle de la rapamycine, un agent immunosuppresseur et anticancéreux, qui mime la carence nutritionelle. Afin de comprendre les mécanismes impliqués dans la réponse a la rapamycine, nous recherchons des mutants de la levure Saccaromyces cerevisiae qui ont un phenotype altérée envers cette drogue. Nous avons identifié le gène RRD1, qui encode une peptidyl prolyl isomérase et dont la mutation rend les levures très résistantes à la rapamycine et il semble que se soit associé à une réponse transcriptionelle alterée. Mon projet de recherche de doctorat est d’identifier le rôle de Rrd1 dans la réponse à la rapamycine. Tout d’abord nous avons trouvé que Rrd1 interagit avec l’ARN polymérase II (RNAPII), plus spécifiquement avec son domaine C-terminal. En réponse à la rapamycine, Rrd1 induit un changement dans la conformation du domaine C-terminal in vivo permettant la régulation de l’association de RNAPII avec certains gènes. Des analyses in vitro ont également montré que cette action est directe et probablement liée à l’activité isomérase de Rrd1 suggérant un rôle pour Rrd1 dans la régulation de la transcription. Nous avons utilisé la technologie de ChIP sur micropuce pour localiser Rrd1 sur la majorité des gènes transcrits par RNAPII et montre que Rrd1 agit en tant que facteur d’élongation de RNAPII. Pour finir, des résultats suggèrent que Rrd1 n’est pas seulement impliqué dans la réponse à la rapamycine mais aussi à differents stress environnementaux, nous permettant ainsi d’établir que Rrd1 est un facteur d’élongation de la transcription requis pour la régulation de la transcription via RNAPII en réponse au stress. / Transcriptional regulation is a complex process that has evolved over millions of years of evolution. Cells have to sense environmental conditions and adapt to them by altering their transcription. Herein, we study the role of rapamycin, an immunosuppressant and anticancer molecule that mimics cellular starvation. To understand how the action of rapamycin is mediated, we analyzed gene deletion mutants in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae that have an altered response to this drug. Deletion of RRD1, a gene encoding a peptidyl prolyl isomerase, causes strong resistance to rapamycin and this was associated with a role of Rrd1 in the transcriptional response towards rapamycin. The main focus of my PhD was therefore to unravel the role of Rrd1 in response to rapamycin. First, we discovered that Rrd1 interacts with RNA polymerase II (RNAPII), more specifically with its C-terminal domain and we showed that in response to rapamycin, Rrd1 alters the structure of this C-terminal domain. This phenomenon was confirmed to be directly mediated by Rrd1 in vitro, presumably through its peptidyl prolyl isomerase activity. Further, we demonstrated that Rrd1 is capable of altering the occupancy of RNAPII on genes in vivo and in vitro. With the use of ChIP on chip technology, we show that Rrd1 is actually a transcription elongation factor that is associated with RNAPII on actively transcribed genes. In addition, we demonstrate that Rrd1 is indeed required to regulate the expression of a large subset of genes in response to rapamycin. This data let us propose a novel mechanism by which Rrd1 regulates RNAPII during transcription elongation. Finally, we provide evidence that Rrd1 is not only required for an efficient response towards rapamycin but to a larger variety of environmental stress conditions, thus establishing Rrd1 as a transcriptional elongation factor required to fine tune the transcriptional stress response of RNAPII.

La régulation de la transcription est un processus complexe qui a évolué pendant des millions d’années permettant ainsi aux cellules de s’adapter aux changements environnementaux. Notre laboratoire étudie le rôle de la rapamycine, un agent immunosuppresseur et anticancéreux, qui mime la carence nutritionelle. Afin de comprendre les mécanismes impliqués dans la réponse a la rapamycine, nous recherchons des mutants de la levure Saccaromyces cerevisiae qui ont un phenotype altérée envers cette drogue. Nous avons identifié le gène RRD1, qui encode une peptidyl prolyl isomérase et dont la mutation rend les levures très résistantes à la rapamycine et il semble que se soit associé à une réponse transcriptionelle alterée. Mon projet de recherche de doctorat est d’identifier le rôle de Rrd1 dans la réponse à la rapamycine. Tout d’abord nous avons trouvé que Rrd1 interagit avec l’ARN polymérase II (RNAPII), plus spécifiquement avec son domaine C-terminal. En réponse à la rapamycine, Rrd1 induit un changement dans la conformation du domaine C-terminal in vivo permettant la régulation de l’association de RNAPII avec certains gènes. Des analyses in vitro ont également montré que cette action est directe et probablement liée à l’activité isomérase de Rrd1 suggérant un rôle pour Rrd1 dans la régulation de la transcription. Nous avons utilisé la technologie de ChIP sur micropuce pour localiser Rrd1 sur la majorité des gènes transcrits par RNAPII et montre que Rrd1 agit en tant que facteur d’élongation de RNAPII. Pour finir, des résultats suggèrent que Rrd1 n’est pas seulement impliqué dans la réponse à la rapamycine mais aussi à differents stress environnementaux, nous permettant ainsi d’établir que Rrd1 est un facteur d’élongation de la transcription requis pour la régulation de la transcription via RNAPII en réponse au stress. / Transcriptional regulation is a complex process that has evolved over millions of years of evolution. Cells have to sense environmental conditions and adapt to them by altering their transcription. Herein, we study the role of rapamycin, an immunosuppressant and anticancer molecule that mimics cellular starvation. To understand how the action of rapamycin is mediated, we analyzed gene deletion mutants in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae that have an altered response to this drug. Deletion of RRD1, a gene encoding a peptidyl prolyl isomerase, causes strong resistance to rapamycin and this was associated with a role of Rrd1 in the transcriptional response towards rapamycin. The main focus of my PhD was therefore to unravel the role of Rrd1 in response to rapamycin. First, we discovered that Rrd1 interacts with RNA polymerase II (RNAPII), more specifically with its C-terminal domain and we showed that in response to rapamycin, Rrd1 alters the structure of this C-terminal domain. This phenomenon was confirmed to be directly mediated by Rrd1 in vitro, presumably through its peptidyl prolyl isomerase activity. Further, we demonstrated that Rrd1 is capable of altering the occupancy of RNAPII on genes in vivo and in vitro. With the use of ChIP on chip technology, we show that Rrd1 is actually a transcription elongation factor that is associated with RNAPII on actively transcribed genes. In addition, we demonstrate that Rrd1 is indeed required to regulate the expression of a large subset of genes in response to rapamycin. This data let us propose a novel mechanism by which Rrd1 regulates RNAPII during transcription elongation. Finally, we provide evidence that Rrd1 is not only required for an efficient response towards rapamycin but to a larger variety of environmental stress conditions, thus establishing Rrd1 as a transcriptional elongation factor required to fine tune the transcriptional stress response of RNAPII.

Grâce à un grand nombre d’études biochimiques, génétiques et structurales effectuées dans les dernières années, des avancements considérables ont été réalisés et une nouvelle vision du processus par lequel la machinerie transcriptionnelle de l’ARN polymérase II (Pol II) décode l’information génétique a émergé. De nouveaux indices ont été apportés sur la diversité des mécanismes de régulation de la transcription, ainsi que sur le rôle des facteurs généraux de transcription (GTFs) dans cette diversification. Les travaux présentés dans cette thèse amènent de nouvelles connaissances sur le rôle des GTFs humains dans la régulation des différentes étapes de la transcription. Dans la première partie de la thèse, nous avons analysé la fonction de la Pol II et des GTFs humains, en examinant de façon systématique leur localisation génomique. Les patrons obtenus par immunoprécipitation de la chromatine (ChIP) des versions de GTFs portant une étiquette TAP (Tandem-Affinity Purification) indiquent de nouvelles fonctions in vivo pour certains composants de cette machinerie et pour des éléments structuraux de la Pol II. Nos résultats suggèrent que TFIIF et l’hétérodimère Rpb4–Rpb7 ont une fonction spécifique pendant l’étape d’élongation transcriptionnelle in vivo. De plus, notre étude amène une première image globale de la fonction des GTFs pendant la réaction transcriptionnelle dans des cellules mammifères vivantes. Deuxièmement, nous avons identifié une nouvelle fonction de TFIIS dans la régulation de CDK9, la sous-unité kinase du facteur P-TEFb (Positive Transcription Elongation Factor b). Nous avons identifié deux nouveaux partenaires d’interaction pour TFIIS, soit CDK9 et la E3 ubiquitine ligase UBR5. Nous montrons que UBR5 catalyse l’ubiquitination de CDK9 in vitro. De plus, la polyubiquitination de CDK9 dans des cellules humaines est dépendante de UBR5 et TFIIS. Nous montrons aussi que UBR5, CDK9 and TFIIS co-localisent le long du gène  fibrinogen (FBG) et que la surexpression de TFIIS augmente les niveaux d’occupation par CDK9 de régions spécifiques de ce gène, de façon dépendante de UBR5. Nous proposons que TFIIS a une nouvelle fonction dans la transition entre les étapes d’initiation et d’élongation transcriptionnelle, en régulant la stabilité des complexes CDK9-Pol II pendant les étapes précoces de la transcription. / Biochemical, genetic and structural studies made over the last years bring a new view on the RNA polymerase II (Pol II) machinery and the process by which it decodes the genetic information. They provided new insights into the diversity of the transcriptional regulation mechanisms, and on the role played by the general transcription factors (GTFs). The studies presented in this thesis provide new evidence on the role of human GTFs in the regulation of different stages of transcription. In the first part of the thesis, we investigated the function of the human Pol II and GTFs in living cells, by systematically analyzing their genomic location. The location profiles obtained by chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) of TAP (tandem-affinity purification) tagged versions of these factors indicate new in vivo functions for several components of this machinery, and for structural elements of the Pol II. These results suggest that TFIIF and the heterodimer Rpb4–Rpb7 have a specific function during the elongation stage in vivo. Additionally, our study offers for the first time a general picture of GTFs function during the Pol II transcription reaction in live mammalian cells, and provides a framework to uncover new regulatory hubs. Secondly, we report on the identification of a new function of the factor TFIIS in the regulation of CDK9, the kinase subunit of the Positive Transcription Elongation Factor b (P-TEFb). We identify two interaction partners for TFIIS, namely CDK9 and the E3 ubiquitin ligase UBR5. We show that UBR5 catalyzes the ubiquitination of CDK9 in vitro. Moreover, the polyubiquitination of CDK9 in human cells is dependent upon both UBR5 and TFIIS, and does not signal its degradation. We also show that UBR5, CDK9 and TFIIS co-localize along specific regions of the  fibrinogen (FBG) gene, and that the overexpression of TFIIS increases the occupancy of CDK9 along this gene in a UBR5 dependant manner. We propose a new function of TFIIS in the transition between initiation and elongation stages, by regulating the stability of the early CDK9-Pol II transcribing complexes. Key words: chromatin immunoprecipitation, general transcription factors, tandem-affinity purification, RNA polymerase II, Rpb4–Rpb7 heterodimer, transcription factor IIF (TFIIF), transcription factor IIS (TFIIS), UBR5 ubiquitin ligase, Positive Transcription Elongation Factor b (P-TEFb), CDK9 ubiquitination.

Grâce à un grand nombre d’études biochimiques, génétiques et structurales effectuées dans les dernières années, des avancements considérables ont été réalisés et une nouvelle vision du processus par lequel la machinerie transcriptionnelle de l’ARN polymérase II (Pol II) décode l’information génétique a émergé. De nouveaux indices ont été apportés sur la diversité des mécanismes de régulation de la transcription, ainsi que sur le rôle des facteurs généraux de transcription (GTFs) dans cette diversification. Les travaux présentés dans cette thèse amènent de nouvelles connaissances sur le rôle des GTFs humains dans la régulation des différentes étapes de la transcription. Dans la première partie de la thèse, nous avons analysé la fonction de la Pol II et des GTFs humains, en examinant de façon systématique leur localisation génomique. Les patrons obtenus par immunoprécipitation de la chromatine (ChIP) des versions de GTFs portant une étiquette TAP (Tandem-Affinity Purification) indiquent de nouvelles fonctions in vivo pour certains composants de cette machinerie et pour des éléments structuraux de la Pol II. Nos résultats suggèrent que TFIIF et l’hétérodimère Rpb4–Rpb7 ont une fonction spécifique pendant l’étape d’élongation transcriptionnelle in vivo. De plus, notre étude amène une première image globale de la fonction des GTFs pendant la réaction transcriptionnelle dans des cellules mammifères vivantes. Deuxièmement, nous avons identifié une nouvelle fonction de TFIIS dans la régulation de CDK9, la sous-unité kinase du facteur P-TEFb (Positive Transcription Elongation Factor b). Nous avons identifié deux nouveaux partenaires d’interaction pour TFIIS, soit CDK9 et la E3 ubiquitine ligase UBR5. Nous montrons que UBR5 catalyse l’ubiquitination de CDK9 in vitro. De plus, la polyubiquitination de CDK9 dans des cellules humaines est dépendante de UBR5 et TFIIS. Nous montrons aussi que UBR5, CDK9 and TFIIS co-localisent le long du gène  fibrinogen (FBG) et que la surexpression de TFIIS augmente les niveaux d’occupation par CDK9 de régions spécifiques de ce gène, de façon dépendante de UBR5. Nous proposons que TFIIS a une nouvelle fonction dans la transition entre les étapes d’initiation et d’élongation transcriptionnelle, en régulant la stabilité des complexes CDK9-Pol II pendant les étapes précoces de la transcription. / Biochemical, genetic and structural studies made over the last years bring a new view on the RNA polymerase II (Pol II) machinery and the process by which it decodes the genetic information. They provided new insights into the diversity of the transcriptional regulation mechanisms, and on the role played by the general transcription factors (GTFs). The studies presented in this thesis provide new evidence on the role of human GTFs in the regulation of different stages of transcription. In the first part of the thesis, we investigated the function of the human Pol II and GTFs in living cells, by systematically analyzing their genomic location. The location profiles obtained by chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) of TAP (tandem-affinity purification) tagged versions of these factors indicate new in vivo functions for several components of this machinery, and for structural elements of the Pol II. These results suggest that TFIIF and the heterodimer Rpb4–Rpb7 have a specific function during the elongation stage in vivo. Additionally, our study offers for the first time a general picture of GTFs function during the Pol II transcription reaction in live mammalian cells, and provides a framework to uncover new regulatory hubs. Secondly, we report on the identification of a new function of the factor TFIIS in the regulation of CDK9, the kinase subunit of the Positive Transcription Elongation Factor b (P-TEFb). We identify two interaction partners for TFIIS, namely CDK9 and the E3 ubiquitin ligase UBR5. We show that UBR5 catalyzes the ubiquitination of CDK9 in vitro. Moreover, the polyubiquitination of CDK9 in human cells is dependent upon both UBR5 and TFIIS, and does not signal its degradation. We also show that UBR5, CDK9 and TFIIS co-localize along specific regions of the  fibrinogen (FBG) gene, and that the overexpression of TFIIS increases the occupancy of CDK9 along this gene in a UBR5 dependant manner. We propose a new function of TFIIS in the transition between initiation and elongation stages, by regulating the stability of the early CDK9-Pol II transcribing complexes. Key words: chromatin immunoprecipitation, general transcription factors, tandem-affinity purification, RNA polymerase II, Rpb4–Rpb7 heterodimer, transcription factor IIF (TFIIF), transcription factor IIS (TFIIS), UBR5 ubiquitin ligase, Positive Transcription Elongation Factor b (P-TEFb), CDK9 ubiquitination.