<p>The aim of this study was to compare the water quality of raw wastewater and treated sewage effluents from three different sewage treatment plants in the Western Cape, South Africa. The treatment plants investigated are on the same river system. Sewage treatment plant 1 and 2 use older technologies, while sewage treatment plant 3 has been upgraded and new technologies (membrane bioreactor) were incorporated in the treatment processes. The first objective was to determine the occurrence of total coliforms, Escherichia coli (E. coli) and fluoroquinolone and sulfamethoxazole antibiotic residues in raw wastewater and treated sewage effluents. Bacteria in treated sewage effluents can result in diseases such as dysentery, gastroenteritis, and typhoid upon exposure. A chromogenic test was used to screen for coliforms and E. coli. Enzyme linked Immunosorbent Assays (ELISA) were used to quantitate antibiotic residues (fluoroquinolones and sulfamethoxazole) in raw wastewater and treated sewage effluents. This study showed that bacteria are present in raw wastewater and residual bacteria are released with treated sewage effluents from sewage treatment plants.</p>

Metoder har utvecklats för att kunna bestämma tolv antibiotikasubstanser, vanliga inom human medicin, i miljöprover. Fokus lades på trimetoprim samt substanser från följande grupper: fluorokinoloner, sulfonamider, penicilliner, cefalosporiner, nitroimidazoler, tetracykliner samt makrolider. Vid extraktion användes fast-fas extraktion för vattenprover och ultraljuds-assisterad fast-fas/vätske extraktion för fasta prover. För separering och bestämning användes vätskekromatografi tandemmasspektrometri. Interna standarder nyttjades för att öka noggrannhet och precision. Extraktionsutbyte låg mellan 50% och 100% för vattenfaser och 14% och 100% för fasta faser. Koncentrationer och massflöden bestämdes för antibiotikasubstanser i inkommande och utgående vatten och slam, från fem avloppreningsverk i Sverige, samt i avloppsvatten från ett sjukhus. I sjukhusavloppsvattnet så påträffades ciprofloxacin (en fluorokinolon) och metronidazol (en nitroimidazol) i höga halter (µg/L nivå). Screening-studien vid de fem avloppsreningsverken visade att norfloxacin, ofloxacin, ciprofloxacin och doxycyklin ofta förekom i inkommande och utgående vatten och slam. Trimetoprim och sulfametoxazol påvisades inte i slam men förekom i snarlika koncentrationer i det utgående vattnet relativt det inkommande. I vattenfasen så förekom de sex antibiotikasubstanserna i ng/L nivån och i slam förekom norfloxacin, ofloxacin, ciprofloxacin, och doxycyklin i låga mg/kg nivån. En studie genomfördes där beteendet hos antibiotikasubstanser under avloppsrening studerades. De två fluorokinolonerna, norfloxacin och ciprofloxacin, adsorberade till slam och mindre än 5% av den totala mängd som kommer till avloppsreningsverket påvisades i det utgående vattnet. I slam var motsvarande andel 70%. Resultat från en process som värmebehandlar rötat avvattnat slam antyder att cirka 50% av de två fluorokinolonerna bryts ner. Trimetoprim adsorberade inte till slam och 100% av total mängd återfanns i det utgående vattnet. Teoretiska beräkningar av koncentrationer och massflöden visade god korrelation till kvantitativa resultat. Ökad noggrannhet i beräkningarna fås genom att beakta stabilitet och fasfördelning. Effekten av antibiotikasubstanser i miljön är idag okänd. Resultat från testprotokoll där deras toxicitet bedöms är i många fall irrelevanta. Tester där organismer är kroniskt exponerade av biologiskt aktiva substanser vid låga koncentrationer är få. Dessutom så fokuserar de ej på de stora potentiella effekterna såsom utveckling eller bevaring av resistenta stammar av bakterier i miljön. Ytterligare studier av förekomst, öde och effekt av antibiotikasubstanser i miljön är nödvändiga. / Methods were developed for determining levels in environmental samples of twelve antibiotics that are commonly used in human medicine: trimethoprim and substances from the following groups: fluoroquinolones, sulfonamides, penicillins, cephalosporines, nitroimidazoles, tetracyclines and macrolides. These substances were extracted from liquid and solid samples by solid phase extraction and ultrasonic-assisted liquid/solid extraction, respectively. Liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry was then used to separate and quantify them, and internal standards were added to improve the accuracy and precision of the determinations. Extraction yields from aqueous and solid phases were in the ranges 50 - 100% and 14 - 100%, respectively. Concentrations and mass flows of antibiotic substances were determined in a hospital effluent and in the raw sewage water, final effluent, and sludge from five sewage treatment plants (STPs) scattered across Sweden. High levels (in the µg/L range) of ciprofloxacin (a fluoroquinolone) and metronidazole (a nitroimidazole), were found in the hospital effluent. The screening study of the five sewage treatment plants revealed that norfloxacin, ofloxacin, ciprofloxacin, and doxycycline were frequently present in the raw sewage water, final effluent and sludge. Trimethoprim and sulfamethoxazole were not detected in the sludge, but these substances were present in the final effluents at concentrations close to those of the raw sewage water. In the aqueous phase, these six antibiotics were present in the ng/L range and in the solid phase, norfloxacin, ofloxacin, ciprofloxacin, and doxycycline were present in the low mg/kg range. The behaviour of the antibiotic substances during sewage water treatment was also investigated in one of the STPs. The two fluoroquinolones, norfloxacin and ciprofloxacin, sorbed to sludge, and less than 5% of the total amounts that entered the STP were found in the final effluent. In sludge, the corresponding figure was 70%. Results from a process in which digested dewatered sludge was treated with heat (producing pellets) indicated that approximately 50% of the two fluoroquinolones had been degraded. Trimethoprim did not sorb to sludge and 100% of its total amount was found in the final effluent. Theoretical calculations of concentrations and mass flows correlated well with quantitative results for the antibiotics that were frequently detected, but not for the others. In order to increase the accuracy of the calculations, the stability and phase distribution of the antibiotics should be considered. The effects of antibiotics present in the environment are currently unknown. Results of test protocols to assess their toxicity are often irrelevant, and there have been few tests in which organisms have been chronically exposed to biologically active substances at low concentrations. In addition, these tests have not addressed the immense potential of antibiotics in the environment to induce the development of resistant strains of bacteria and to maintain populations of resistant strains. Further studies of the occurrence, fate, and, effects of antibiotic substances in the environment are required.

The presence of human pathogens in water indicates the sanitary risk associated with different types of water utilization. This study surveyed the sources of human pathogens in urban waters. In order to evaluate the microbiological water quality of urban water, the enumeration of various indicator bacteria (total coliform, fecal coliform, E.coli and enterococci) is usually used. The abundance of indicator bacteria in urban water indicates the level of fecal contamination and the presence of other human pathogens such as protozoan pathogens (Giardia lamblia & Cryptosporidium parvum). Fecal pollution of urban waters can be from human and animal origin. Point sources of fecal contamination in an urbanized area are the effluents of urban wastewater treatment plants. While non-point sources are usually originated from diffuse sources such as (runoff from roads, parking lots, pets, leaks, failing septic systems and illegal sewer connections to storm drains). urban stormwater is considered as a major carrier for delivering human pathogens from diffuse sources to receiving waters. Increases in urban stormwater volumes have resulted from increasing urbanization and growth of impervious surfaces. In order to reduce high amounts of human pathogens in urban waters, different methods are used nowadays to develop urban wastewater treatment plants technologies and urban stormwater management practices.

Carters Creek in Brazos County, Texas, like many surface water reaches in the Texas Gulf Coast region, has been identified for bacteria and nutrient impairment on the Texas Commission on Environmental Quality (TCEQ) 303(d) List. Carters Creek drains a rapidly urbanizing watershed and has been found to carry high concentrations of dissolved organic carbon (DOC), nitrate, phosphate and sodium. These constituents have a severe impact on the creek?s capacity for healthy aquatic life and increase the potential for eutrophication downstream. The creek has also had chronic high Escherichia coli counts, making the creek unsuitable for contact recreation according to the accepted standard for surface water quality, which is a geometric mean of 126 CFU per 100 ml. In this study, grab samples were taken twice monthly from fifteen sites on Carters Creek and its subcatchments from July 2007 to June 2008. The samples were analyzed for E. coli, DOC, total N, NO3-N, NH4-N, Na+, K+, Mg2+, Ca2+, F-, Cl-, Br-, NO2-, SO42- and PO4-3. Mean annual DOC concentrations varied from 24.8 mg/L in Carter at Boonville Road to 55.5 mg/L in Wolfpen Creek; sodium varied from 33 mg/L in Carter at Old Reliance Road to 200 mg/L, also in Wolfpen Creek. Burton 4, the subcatchment with the highest geometric mean for E. coli with 2547 CFU/100 mL, was also sampled with greater geographical intensity for E. coli and optical brightener fluorescence at 445 nm to identify any leaking sewer pipes, but no evidence of defective pipes was found. During both the spring season and annual high flow (storm events), E. coli counts were positively correlated with total urban land use, probably caused by storm runoff carrying residues from impervious surfaces into the stream. High flow E. coli also had a negative relationship with potassium and a positive relationship with calcium, possibly suggesting a bioflocculation effect. Sites downstream of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) showed higher nitrate, phosphate, sodium, potassium, chloride and fluoride than other urban subcatchments. Creeks with golf courses carried more phosphate, sodium and fluoride than subcatchments without golf courses or WWTPs.

N-Nitrosodimethylamine (commonly known as NDMA) is a probable human carcinogen that has been recognized as an emerging drinking water contaminant in recent years. Previous studies have shown that certain N-containing organic compounds may form NDMA in reaction with chlorine or monochloramine and the NDMA yield is affected by the structure of the organic-N compounds, water conditions and treatment parameters. Many amine-based water treatment polymers contain organic-N functional groups and thus have been suspected as potential NDMA precursors in water treatment systems. The purpose of this research was to systematically assess the potential NDMA formation from different structural types of water treatment polymers in reactions with various oxidants and probe the possible factors that influence the NDMA formation. Robust analytical methods for detection of NDMA and the well-known NDMA precursor dimethylamine (DMA) in the reaction samples were established. The cationic polyacrylamide (cationic PAMS), aminomethylated polyacrylamide (Mannich), poly-diallyldimethylammonium chloride (polyDADMAC) and polyamine polymers were evaluated in reactions with nitrite, free chlorine, monochloramine or chlorine dioxide in aqueous solutions at circumneutral pH and room temperature conditions. This study employed high dosages of polymer and oxidant and long reaction time in order to assess the maximum potential to form NDMA. A range of operational parameters that may affect the above reactions were also evaluated.

<p>The aim of this study was to compare the water quality of raw wastewater and treated sewage effluents from three different sewage treatment plants in the Western Cape, South Africa. The treatment plants investigated are on the same river system. Sewage treatment plant 1 and 2 use older technologies, while sewage treatment plant 3 has been upgraded and new technologies (membrane bioreactor) were incorporated in the treatment processes. The first objective was to determine the occurrence of total coliforms, Escherichia coli (E. coli) and fluoroquinolone and sulfamethoxazole antibiotic residues in raw wastewater and treated sewage effluents. Bacteria in treated sewage effluents can result in diseases such as dysentery, gastroenteritis, and typhoid upon exposure. A chromogenic test was used to screen for coliforms and E. coli. Enzyme linked Immunosorbent Assays (ELISA) were used to quantitate antibiotic residues (fluoroquinolones and sulfamethoxazole) in raw wastewater and treated sewage effluents. This study showed that bacteria are present in raw wastewater and residual bacteria are released with treated sewage effluents from sewage treatment plants.</p>

The objective of this study was to provide a technique, based on the residence time distribution of a process, for modelling, assessing and improving flow in the processes of water and waste water treatment works. The technique should be accessible to the staff managing and operating the works. From a review of the literature, a preference was given for the experimental method used for determination of the tracer response, including choice of tracer and tracer addition and monitoring. Data analysis techniques were reviewed, and the method of time domain fitting was developed into a computer program, IMPULSE. IMPULSE provided a tool for analysis of residence time data, and removed the constraint of numerical complexity. Using the building blocks of IMPULSE, a realistic flow model can be constructed from tracer data and evaluated. IMPULSE allows a quantitative comparison of models proposed for a process, and provides the parameters of the models. These parameters quantify the non-idealities in a process. A knowledge of the non-idealities provides a basis for decision-making when modifying a process. The results of tracer experiments performed on some water and waste water treatment processes were analysed using IMPULSE. The results showed that collection of good experimental data was critical to the success of the analysis. It is proposed that a guide be produced which draws out the main points raised in the study, including collection of tracer data and use of IMPULSE. The guide should be accessible and easily understandable to the staff managing and operating water and waste water treatment works. / Thesis (M.Sc.Eng.)-University of Natal, Durban, 1995.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Flinders University, School of Medicine, Dept. of Environmental Health. / Typescript bound. Includes bibliographical references: (leaves 650-698) Also available online.

Thesis (M.Sc.Agric.) - University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2009. / Full text also available online. Scroll down for electronic link.

Στην παρούσα μελέτη εξετάζεται η δυνατότητα επαναχρησιμοποίησης των επεξεργασμένων αστικών λυμάτων και ιλύος από Εγκαταστάσεις Επεξεργασίας Λυμάτων του νομού Αιτωλ/νίας σε γεωργικές εκτάσεις του νομού. Στο πρώτο μέρος της εργασίας γίνεται μια εισαγωγή στην επαναχρησιμοποίηση των αστικών λυμάτων στην γεωργία. Περιγράφονται τα χαρακτηριστικά των λυμάτων, οι διεργασίες που συντελούνται στις Εγκαταστάσεις Επεξεργασίας Λυμάτων, τα κριτήρια ποιότητας που πρέπει να πληρούν τα λύματα (προκειμένου να χρησιμοποιηθούν για άρδευση). Αναλύονται τα αγρονομικά κριτήρια και τα κριτήρια για την διασφάλιση της δημόσιας υγείας, που πρέπει να τηρούν τα επεξεργασμένα λύματα, ώστε να εφαρμόζονται στα εδάφη με ασφάλεια. Επίσης, στο πρώτο μέρος αναλύονται τα κριτήρια επιλογής θέσεων για την εφαρμογή των λυμάτων, καθώς και το νομοθετικό πλαίσιο που ισχύει στην Ελλάδα σχετικά με την επαναχρησιμοποίηση. Τέλος, γίνεται μια επισκόπηση της διεθνούς πρακτικής σχετικά με την επαναχρησιμοποίηση και περιγράφεται και η κατάσταση που επικρατεί στον Ελλαδικό χώρο. Στο δεύτερο μέρος γίνεται αναφορά στους υδατικούς πόρους του νομού Αιτωλ/νίας. Περιγράφεται το υδατικό δυναμικό του νομού Αιτωλ/νίας, οι ανάγκες νερού για διάφορες χρήσεις στον νομό, καθώς και οι υποδομές δικτύων άρδευσης σην Αιτωλ/νία. Το τρίτο μέρος αναφέρεται στην χρήση της ιλύος στην γεωργία. Γίνεται περιγραφή των χαρακτηριστικών της λυματολάσπης, του νομικού πλαισίου που ισχύει κατά την χρήση της στην γεωργία και τονίζονται τα κρίσιμα σημεία ελέγχου κατά την εφαρμογή της λάσπης στα γεωργικά εδάφη. Στο τέταρτο μέρος γίνεται η οριοθέτηση και η περιγραφή των περιοχών μελέτης και παρουσιάζεται ο τρόπος, με τον οποίο προσδιορίζονται οι καλλιεργούμενες εκτάσεις μέσα σε κάθε περιοχή μελέτης, ώστε στην συνέχεια να εκτιμηθούν οι υδατικές απαιτήσεις. Οι Εγκαταστάσεις Επεξεργασίας Αστικών Λυμάτων, που εξετάζονται στην παρούσα μελέτη, είναι αυτές των Δήμων Μεσολογγίου, Αιτωλικού, Θέρμου, Αγρινίου και Ναυπάκτου. Ενώ οι επιλεγείσες περιοχές μελέτης βρίσκονται πλησίον των ανωτέρω εγκαταστάσεων. Γίνεται επίσης σύντομη αναφορά στον τρόπο λειτουργίας της κάθε ΕΕΛ. Στο πέμπτο μέρος γίνεται αναφορά στους παράγοντες που επηρεάζουν την υδατοκατανάλωση των καλλιεργειών, αναλύεται η μεθοδολογία με την βοήθεια της οποίας προσδιορίζονται οι υδατικές απαιτήσεις των καλλιεργειών σύμφωνα με την εξίσωση των Penman Monteith κατά FAO. Προσδιορίζονται οι υδατικές απαιτήσεις των καλλιεργειών και οι συνολικές ανάγκες σε αρδευτικό νερό για κάθε περιοχή μελέτης, ακολουθεί η συσχετισή του με τις ετήσιες εκροές της κάθε ΕΕΛ, ώστε να προκύψει το ποσοστό κάλυψης των αρδευτικών αναγκών με επεξεργασμένες εκροές για την κάθε περιοχή. Τέλος, στο έκτο μέρος γίνεται μια προσπάθεια εκτίμησης της δυνατότητας χρήσης της λυματολάσπης στα εδάφη του νομού Αιτωλ/νίας. / This study examines the potential reuse of treated municipal wastewater and sludge from Waste Water Treatment Plants (WWTPs) in agricultural areas of Aitoloakarnania prefecture. The first part of the study is an introduction to the reuse of urban wastewater in agriculture. Describes the characteristics of wastewater, the processes occurring in the wastewater treatment plants, the quality criteria that wastewater should have for safe use in irrigation. Also, the first part analyzes the criteria for selecting areas to apply wastewater. The legislative framework in Greece for waste water reuse is also analyzed. Finally, a review of international and domestic practices on agricultural reuse is given. The second part refers to the water resources of the Aitoloakarnania prefecture. The third part refers to the use of sludge in agriculture. Describes the characteristics of the sludge, the legal framework applicable for use in agriculture and highlights the critical control points in the application of sludge on soils. The fourth part describes each study area and shows how we can specify in each area the cultivated species (crops) in order to calculate the water requirements of the crops. The study areas are sited near by the WWTPs of Messolongi, Aitoliko, Thermo, Agrinio, Naupaktos. The fifth part refers to the factors affecting water requirements of the crops, and analyzes the methodology used to calculate water requirements of crops (FAO Penman – Monteith equation). At the end of the part there is a correlation between the water requirements of the crops and the annual output of each WWTP, resulting in the percentage of coverage of irrigation demands of crops in each studied area. Finally, the sixth part is an attempt to assess the usability of sludge to soils of the Aitoloakarnania prefecture.