Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are carcinogenic persistent contaminants. Although their manufacturing in North America ceased in the late 1970s, their high heat resistance made their use widespread over their production lifetime. As a result, PCB contamination has occurred globally and in particular has plague brownfield redevelopment in urban environments. The remediation of PCB contaminated soil or sediments has historically been dealt with through the expensive and unsustainable practice of excavation followed by off-site disposal or incineration. One potential technology that has shown some success with on-site remediation of PCB contamination is solvent extraction. Solvent extraction is technically simple; it involves excavating the contaminated soil, placing it in a vessel and adding solvent. The PCBs are extracted by the solvent and the treated soil is returned for use on site. Although successful at removing a large quantity of PCBs from some soils, this technology can be improved upon by extracting additional PCB mass and making the extraction more efficient and suitable for colder climates. This thesis aimed to identify the factors controlling PCB extraction with solvents in order to optimize PCB extraction as it is applied on different soil types and in various climates. The research investigated the impact of elevated moisture contents (≤ 20% by weight) on solvent extraction efficiency, the effects of low temperatures (<5ºC) on solvent extraction, and developed a kinetic model to represent PCB solvent extraction. As past research has shown, weathered PCB in soil is more difficult to remove. Contaminated field samples from Southern Ontario, Canada were used for this work, rather than synthetically prepared samples. The impact of elevated moisture contents and low temperature on extraction efficiency was determined through a series of screening experiments using polar and non-polar solvents at both 20ºC and 4ºC. It was hypothesized that improved extractions may be possible with combinations of polar and non-polar solvents. Based on the results of these screening experiments, a factorial experiment was designed using solvent combinations to further assess the role of moisture contents and low temperatures. The role of PCB mass distribution among grain sizes was also evaluated to see if optimization based on grain size separation is possible. Finally, experiments were performed to generate data suitable for the development of a kinetic model that incorporates key factors affecting solvent extraction. Four suitable solvents for solvent extraction in Ontario were identified through a literature review and these were used for this work: isopropyl alcohol (polar), ethanol (polar), triethylamine (non-polar) and isooctane (non-polar). Triethylamine outperformed isooctane and performed best on its own rather than in combination with polar solvents. An interaction between soil moisture content and choice of polar solvent (isopropyl alcohol versus ethanol) was established: a given polar solvent achieves optimal PCB extraction at a specific moisture content range. Temperature was also identified as significantly influencing PCB extraction. Although it was determined that PCBs were distributed unevenly amongst grain sizes, a simple relationship between grain size and fractional organic carbon or organic content was not found. A simple two-compartment kinetic model was developed which is suitable for predicting the PCB concentrations extracted up to 24 hours. The model incorporates both temperature and soil to solvent ratio in order to estimate PCB concentration extracted.

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are carcinogenic persistent contaminants. Although their manufacturing in North America ceased in the late 1970s, their high heat resistance made their use widespread over their production lifetime. As a result, PCB contamination has occurred globally and in particular has plague brownfield redevelopment in urban environments. The remediation of PCB contaminated soil or sediments has historically been dealt with through the expensive and unsustainable practice of excavation followed by off-site disposal or incineration. One potential technology that has shown some success with on-site remediation of PCB contamination is solvent extraction. Solvent extraction is technically simple; it involves excavating the contaminated soil, placing it in a vessel and adding solvent. The PCBs are extracted by the solvent and the treated soil is returned for use on site. Although successful at removing a large quantity of PCBs from some soils, this technology can be improved upon by extracting additional PCB mass and making the extraction more efficient and suitable for colder climates. This thesis aimed to identify the factors controlling PCB extraction with solvents in order to optimize PCB extraction as it is applied on different soil types and in various climates. The research investigated the impact of elevated moisture contents (≤ 20% by weight) on solvent extraction efficiency, the effects of low temperatures (<5ºC) on solvent extraction, and developed a kinetic model to represent PCB solvent extraction. As past research has shown, weathered PCB in soil is more difficult to remove. Contaminated field samples from Southern Ontario, Canada were used for this work, rather than synthetically prepared samples. The impact of elevated moisture contents and low temperature on extraction efficiency was determined through a series of screening experiments using polar and non-polar solvents at both 20ºC and 4ºC. It was hypothesized that improved extractions may be possible with combinations of polar and non-polar solvents. Based on the results of these screening experiments, a factorial experiment was designed using solvent combinations to further assess the role of moisture contents and low temperatures. The role of PCB mass distribution among grain sizes was also evaluated to see if optimization based on grain size separation is possible. Finally, experiments were performed to generate data suitable for the development of a kinetic model that incorporates key factors affecting solvent extraction. Four suitable solvents for solvent extraction in Ontario were identified through a literature review and these were used for this work: isopropyl alcohol (polar), ethanol (polar), triethylamine (non-polar) and isooctane (non-polar). Triethylamine outperformed isooctane and performed best on its own rather than in combination with polar solvents. An interaction between soil moisture content and choice of polar solvent (isopropyl alcohol versus ethanol) was established: a given polar solvent achieves optimal PCB extraction at a specific moisture content range. Temperature was also identified as significantly influencing PCB extraction. Although it was determined that PCBs were distributed unevenly amongst grain sizes, a simple relationship between grain size and fractional organic carbon or organic content was not found. A simple two-compartment kinetic model was developed which is suitable for predicting the PCB concentrations extracted up to 24 hours. The model incorporates both temperature and soil to solvent ratio in order to estimate PCB concentration extracted.

The N-heterocyclic carbene (NHCs) based pincer ligands field is still in its infancy after decades. They are known for their applications in organocatalysis, coordinating with transition metals and p-block elements, catalysis, and material chemistry. Among all NHCs, CCC-NHC-based on late-transition metal complexes were first developed by our group in 2005 with a unique metalation/transmetalation strategy. Our group also designed the chiral version of these CCC-NHC ligands to synthesize its metal complexes. However, their asymmetric catalytic applications were unknown. Wanting to expand on this work, we first successfully synthesized achiral CCC-NHC pincer complexes and their new catalytic application, as it is economically cheaper than directly working on developing a chiral version for catalysis. Then, different chiral CCC-NHC salts were synthesized based on different chiral arms and N-substituents on NHCs to modify their steric hindrance and electronic structure properties. These precursors were used for their enantioselective application in nucleophilic catalysis. In Chapter II, we will discuss the synthesis of the CCC-NHC pincer Ir (III) dimer complex and its first catalytic application in C−H functionalization of N-methylindoles with alpha-aryl-alpha-diazoacetates at the C-3. The best reaction conditions involve a combination of catalysts and substrates in a specific order. It resulted in the activation of the C-H bond with the formation of a new C-C bond to generate alpha-aryl-alpha-indolyl acetates with more than 99% conversion at room temperature without requiring any additives. The substrate scope and limitations of N-methyl indoles and diazoacetates were also explored. Chapter III will focus on a new modified synthetic route to synthesize and characterize chiral CCC-NHC chloride salts in a shorter synthetic route than the known one. The metalation/transmetalation of chiral CCC-NHC ligands with late transition metals and the initial attempt in asymmetric catalysis will be discussed in Chapter IV. Chapter, V, demonstrated nucleophilic catalysis of CCC-NHC precursors in benzoin condensation of aldehyde. The study started with the evaluation of fifteen different achiral bis-CCC-NHC salts based on triazole, imidazole, and benzimidazole. Further studies with chiral CCC-NHC salts also resulted in more than 99% conversion and 99% ee in benzoin products. The substrate scope of benzaldehyde with different substituents was also explored

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as superoxide radical anion (O2•¯), hydroxylradical (OH•), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and peroxynitrite (ONOO-) that are produced during the metabolism of oxygen under oxidative stress in aerobic organisms destroy several key biomolecules and lead to a number of disease states. Mammalian systems possess several effective defense mechanisms including antioxidant enzymes to detoxify these ROS. The selenocysteine-containing Glutathione peroxidase (GPx) is particularly an efficient enzyme in the detoxification of H2O2 and other hydroperoxides by using glutathione (GSH) as cofactor. The chemistry at the active siteof GPx has been extensively investigated with the help of synthetic selenium compounds. Although the anti-inflammatory compound ebselen(2-phenyl-1,2-benzoisoselenazol-3(2H)-one) is undergoing phase III clinical trial as antioxidant, the chemistry of ebselen is still not understood. The present study on a number of ebselen derivatives with various N-substitutions reveals that the substitution at the N atom is important for the antioxidant activity. This study also suggests that the nature for thiol cofactor has a dramatic effect on the GPx activity of ebselen derivatives. It has been shown that ebselen exhibits very poor catalytic activity in the presence of aromatic thiols mainly due to strong Se….O nonbonded interactions that lead to extensive thiol exchange reactions in the selenenyl sulfide intermediate. To prevent the se….O interactions, a series of tertiary amide-based diselenides have been synthesized along with their secondary amide counterparts. Detailed structure-activity correlation studies reveal that the GPx-like activity of the sec-amide-based compounds can be significantly enhanced by the substitution at the free-NH group of sec-amide functionality. The N,N-dialkylbenzylamine-based diselenides exhibit their catalytic activities via the generation of selenols which was confirmed by the reaction with anti-arthritic gold(I) compounds. Interestingly, the replacement of the hydrogen atom at the 6th position of the benzene ring of N,N-dialkylbenzylamine-based diselenides by a methoxy group prevents the thiol exchange reactions mainly be weakening the Se…N interactions and thus enhances the GPx activity. On the other hand, the catalytic activity of the tert-amine-based diselenides can also be increased by replacing the tert-amino groups with the corresponding sec-amine moieties. It has been observed that the basic amino group in the amine-based diselenides deprotonates the selenol and also the thiol cofactor, which is crucial for the higher catalytic activities of the amine-based compounds. Peroxynitrite (PN, ONOO), a strong nitrating agent, is known to inactivate a number of proteins, enzymes and other biomolecules by nitration of tyrosine residues. In this study, we have shown that the commonly used antithyroid drugs and their analogues inhibit protein tyrosine nitration. This study reveals that antithyroid agents having PN scavenging activity may be beneficial of hyperthyroidism as these compounds may protect the thyroid gland from nitrative or nitrosative stress.