This study was designed to determine the effect of organoselenium compounds on experimental models of cancer and diabetes. In mammary carcinogenesis induced by N-nitroso-N-methylurea (NMU, 3 doses of 50 mg/kg, i.p.), it was observed that the use of diet supplemented with diphenyl diselenide (1ppm, 7 months) was efficient in increase the latency to tumor onset and in reduce mammary tumor incidence and total number of tumors induced by NMU. The use of diet supplemented with diphenyl diselenide did not cause toxic effects in animals such as loss of body weight and alterations in hepatic and renal markers. These results suggest that diphenyl diselenide compound exhibited low toxicity even when supplemented by long time period. The both antioxidant and pro-oxidant properties of selenium may be linked to its anti-carcinogenic activity. In this context, our results indicated that antioxidant property exhibited by diphenyl diselenide can contribute for its protective effect against mammary carcinogenesis. In fact, the diet supplemented with diphenyl diselenide normalized superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity and elevated blood, hepatic and spleenic vitamin C levels in NMU treated animals. On experimental models of diabetes mellitus two treatments using organo selenium were carried out: (1) animals were treated with diphenyl diselenide and ebselen (1 mg/kg, s.c.) by 3 months after diabetes induction; (2) animals were treated with a diet supplemented with diphenyl diselenide (10 ppm) after the wean phase at the end of experimental period. Diabetes was induced with a single dose streptozotcin (STZ) (50 mg/Kg, i.p.). In model 1, it was observed that only diphenyl diselenide treatment caused significant reduction in hyperglycemia induced by STZ. This effect of diphenyl diselenide was accompanied by a reduction in the levels of glycated proteins, which were elevated in diabetic rats. Treatment with diphenyl diselenide increased SOD activity and vitamin C levels that were decreased in STZ treated rats. Of particular importance, diphenyl diselenide treatment promoted per se an increase in hepatic, renal and blood reduced glutathione (GSH) levels in animals. Similary, diphenyl diselenide caused an increase in hepatic and renal GSH levels in STZ treated rats. The STZ treatment caused a decrease in hepatic δ-ALA-D activity, which was normalized by diphenyl diselenide and ebselen treatments. This reduction in δ-ALA-D activity was not observed in renal enzyme. In model 2, it was observed that the use of diet supplemented with 10 ppm of diphenyl diselenide did not produce significant toxicity and reduced significantly the mortality index caused by STZ administration. The antioxidant property of diphenyl diselenide can be associated with this protective effect, since pro-oxidative action of STZ is linked to destruction process of cells β pancreatics. As observed in model 1, the use of diet supplemented with diphenyl diselenide reduced the alterations in antioxidant defenses induced by STZ and caused per se an increase in hepatic and blood -SH levels of animals. STZ treatment caused a decrease in hepatic δ-ALA-D activity, which was restored by the use of diet supplemented with diphenyl diselenide. The activity of renal δ-ALA-D enzyme was not modified in diabetic rats. In summary, our findings suggest that diphenyl diselenide can be considered a compound with significant therapeutic value on treatment of cancer and diabetes. However, further studies are needed to elucidate the mechanism(s) of action and the efficacy of compound as anti-diabetogenic and anticarcinogenic agent. / O presente estudo foi delineado para avaliar o efeito de compostos orgânicos de selênio em modelos experimentais de câncer e diabetes. No modelo de carcinogênese mamária induzida por N-nitroso-N-metilurea (NMU, 3 doses de 50 mg/Kg, i.p.) observou-se que o consumo de uma dieta suplementada com disseleneto de difenila (1 ppm, 7 meses) foi eficaz em aumentar a latência para o aparecimento dos tumores e em reduzir a incidência e o número total de tumores induzidos pelo carcinógeno. O consumo da dieta não ocasionou efeitos tóxicos aos animais, como a perda de peso e alterações em marcadores de dano hepático e renal. Esses dados sugerem que o composto exibiu uma baixa toxicidade mesmo quando suplementado por períodos prolongados. A capacidade antioxidante e pró-oxidante do selênio; as quais dependem diretamente da sua concentração, podem estar associadas à sua atividade anticarcinogênica. Nossos resultados relacionados com tais aspectos indicam que a atividade antioxidante exibida pelo composto pode ter contribuído para o seu efeito protetor neste modelo experimental de carcinogênese mamária. De fato, o consumo da dieta suplementada com disseleneto de difenila normalizou a atividade da enzima superóxido dismutase (SOD) e elevou os níveis de vitamina C no sangue, fígado e baço dos animais tratados com NMU. Nos modelos experimentais de Diabetes Mellitus dois tipos de tratamento com selênio foram utilizados: (1) os animais foram tratados com disseleneto de difenila e ebselen (1mg/Kg, s.c.) durante 3 meses após a indução de diabetes; (2) os animais foram tratados com uma dieta suplementada com disseleneto de difenila (10 ppm) desde a fase de desmame até o final do período experimental. Em ambos os modelos, a indução de diabetes foi realizada pela administração de uma dose de streptozotocina (STZ) (50 mg/Kg, i.p.). No modelo 1 evidenciou-se que somente o tratamento com disseleneto de difenila causou uma significante redução na hiperglicemia induzida por STZ. Este efeito foi acompanhado por uma redução significativa nos níveis de proteínas glicadas; os quais foram elevados nos animais diabéticos. O tratamento com disseleneto de difenila causou um aumento na atividade da enzima SOD e nos níveis de vitamina C, os quais foram diminuídos nos animais tratados com STZ. De particular importância, o tratamento com este composto promoveu per se um aumento nos níveis de glutationa reduzida (GSH) de fígado, rim e sangue e na atividade da enzima SOD de rim. De maneira similar, o tratamento com o disseleneto de difenila aumentou os níveis de GSH hepático e renal nos animais tratados com STZ. O tratamento com STZ causou uma redução na atividade da enzima aminolevulinato desidratase (δ-ALA-D) hepática, a qual não foi revertida pelos compostos orgânicos de selênio. Esta redução de atividade causada pela STZ não foi observada na enzima renal. No modelo 2 evidenciou-se que o consumo da dieta suplementada com 10 ppm de disseleneto de difenila, não causou efeitos tóxicos aos animais e reduziu de forma significativa o índice de mortalidade induzido pela administração de STZ. A atividade antioxidante do disseleneto de difenila, mais uma vez pode estar relacionada com tal efeito, uma vez que a ação pró-oxidante da STZ está envolvida na sua capacidade de causar a destruição das células β pancreáticas. Assim como observado para o modelo 1, o consumo da dieta suplementada com disseleneto de difenila reduziu as alterações nas defesas antioxidantes nos animais tratados com STZ e causou per se um aumento nos níveis de -SH hepático e sanguíneo dos animais. Novamente, o tratamento com STZ causou um decréscimo na atividade da enzima δ-ALA-D hepática, a qual não foi revertida pelo consumo com a dieta suplementada com disseleneto de difenila. A atividade da enzima δ-ALA-D renal não foi modificada nos animais diabéticos. Em resumo, nossos dados apontam o disseleneto de difenila como um composto de valor terapêutico significativo para o tratamento de câncer e Diabetes Mellitus. No entanto, mais estudos se fazem necessários para comprovarem a eficácia do composto e seu provável mecanismo de ação.

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / The diazinon (DI) is a commonly organophosphorus (OP) used in pest control around the world. Severe acute poisoning due to ingestion of OP in suicide attempts were reported during the past years. The main toxic effect of OP is through acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition, leading to a greater stimulation of cholinergic synapses in the central nervous system (CNS) which can lead to death. However, poisoning can lead to such state of hyperglycemia. However, the mechanism by which OP lead to this adverse effect is still unknown, even so, it is suggested that glycogenolysis and neoglycogenic pathways are involved. In recent studies, ebselen (EB) has shown pharmacological properties in experimental models of genetically or alloxan induced diabetes, as well as complications resulting from diabetes. Being considered a potential pharmacological agent for hyperglycemia treatment when caused by OP poisoning. Thus, this study evaluated the effects of EB on the glucose metabolism and other biochemical changes induced in rats by DI, as well as the insulin-mimetic effect of EB on glucose uptake in skeletal muscle tissue and the synthesis and breakdown of liver glycogen in tissues of rats. In in vivo experiments, rats were pretreated with a single injection of EB (50 mg/kg) intraperitoneally (i.p.). Thereafter, the animals were treated with a single oral (p.o.) dose of DI (200 mg/kg). Parameters indicative of liver and pancreas damage such as amylase, lipase, aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activities and serum glucose, hepatic glycogen content and hepatic glucose-6-phosphatase (G6Pase) activity were determined. Pretreatment with EB was effective in preventing against pancreatic and liver damage, as shown by the reduction in the activities of amylase, lipase, AST, ALT, ALP and LDH. EB was able to reduce blood glucose and hepatic glycogen content increased in the animals exposed to DI. In in vitro assays, EB (150 mM) or insulin (IN 10 mM as a positive control) were incubated with either skeletal muscle or liver tissue, in order to measure the absorption of glucose, glycogen synthesis and glycogen breakdown. Thus, EB increased glucose uptake in skeletal muscle, stimulated glycogen synthesis and inhibited hepatic glycogen breakdown in a manner similar to IN. In this context, EB demonstrated insulin-mimetic properties, lowering blood glucose levels in vivo and increasing glucose uptake by skeletal tissue, increasing glycogen synthesis and decreasing glycogen degradation in vitro. In conclusion, EB, possibly through its insulin-mimetic action, protected against pancreatic and hepatic damage caused by DI in rats. / O diazinon (DI) é um dos organofosforados (OP) mais utilizados no controle de pragas ao redor do mundo. Desta forma, são cotidianos os relatos de intoxicações acidentais por estes. Além disso, muitos casos de intoxicações devido à ingestão aguda por OP em tentativas de suicídio foram relatadas durante os últimos anos. Sabe-se que o principal efeito tóxico dos OP é através da inibição da acetilcolinesterase (AChE), levando a um maior estímulo das sinapses colinérgicas no sistema nervoso central (SNC) o que pode provocar à morte. A intoxicação por estes compostos também pode levar a um estado de hiperglicemia. Ainda desconhece-se o mecanismo pelo qual os OP levam a este efeito adverso, contudo, sugere-se que as vias da gliconeogênese e da glicogenólise estejam envolvidas. O ebselen (EB) apresentou propriedades benéficas em modelos experimentais de diabetes induzida com aloxano ou geneticamente, assim como contra complicações consequentes da diabetes. Sendo considerado assim, como um agente farmacológico em potencial para o tratamento da hiperglicemia provocada pela intoxicação por OP. Dessa forma, o presente trabalho avaliou os efeitos do EB in vivo no metabolismo da glicose e em outras alterações bioquímicas induzidas pelo DI em ratos, assim como, o efeito insulino-mimético do EB na captação de glicose em tecido muscular esquelético e na síntese e degradação do glicogênio hepático in vitro. Para os experimentos ex vivo, ratos Wistar machos adultos foram pré-tratados com uma única injeção de EB (50 mg/kg) pela via intraperitoneal (i.p.). Trinta minutos depois, os animais foram tratados com uma única dose de DI (200 mg/kg) pela via oral (v.o). Vinte e quatro horas após, parâmetros indicativos de dano pâncreatico e hepático, como as atividades da amilase, lipase, aspartato aminotransferase (AST), alanina aminotransferase (ALT), fosfatase alcalina (ALP) e lactato desidrogenase (LDH), bem como níveis séricos de glicose, conteúdo de glicogênio hepático e atividade da glicose-6-fosfatase (G6Pase) hepática foram determinados. O pré-tratamento com EB preveniu contra os danos pâncreaticos e hepáticos provocados pelo DI, como mostrado pela redução nas atividades da amilase, lipase, AST, ALT, ALP e LDH. Alem disso, o EB reduziu a hiperglicemia, a qual foi aumentada nos animais expostos ao DI e aumentou o conteúdo de glicogênio hepático, o qual tinha diminuido nestes. Em ensaios in vitro, o EB (150 mM) ou insulina (IN 10 mM, controle positivo) foram incubados com amostras de músculo esquelético ou tecido hepático, com o objetivo de medir a captação de glicose, síntese e quebra de glicogênio. Assim, o EB aumentou a captação de glicose pelo músculo esquelético, estimulou a síntese de glicogênio hepático e inibiu a quebra do glicogênio em uma maneira similar à IN. Neste contexto, o EB apresentou propriedades insulino-miméticas, diminuindo os níveis de glicose sérica in vivo e aumentando a captação de glicose pelo tecido esquelético, aumentando a síntese e diminuindo a quebra de glicogênio in vitro. Desta forma, o EB protegeu da hiperglicemia induzida por OP, agindo de uma forma mimética à insulina.

Excitotoxicity refers to the neurodegenerative process initiated by excessive activation of receptors for the neurotransmitter glutamate. This process is one of the most extensively studied processes of neuronal cell death, and plays an important role in many central nervous system (CNS) diseases, including CNS ischemia, trauma, and neurodegenerative disorders. Such excitotoxic cell death seems to involve excessive calcium influx and release from internal organelles, oxyradical production, apoptosis cascades. In this study, we evaluated the effects of three simple diorganyl chalcogenides (diphenyl diselenide, diphenyl ditelluride and diphenyl telluride) and ebselen on glutamate-driven 45Ca2+ influx into chick embryonic retinal cells, as well as their effects on the excitotoxic retina neuronal damage. None of the compounds tested interfered with basal 45Ca2+ uptake. Diphenyl diselenide and diphenyl ditelluride had no effects on glutamate-stimulated 45Ca2+ influx. Diphenyl telluride (100-400 μM) decreased the glutamate-stimulated 45Ca2+ and ebselen (100-400 μM) blocked the glutamate-driven 45Ca2+ influx into chick retinal explants (P < 0.01). The assessment of neuronal injury was made pectrophotometrically by quantification of cellularly reduced MTT (3(4,5-dimethyl-thiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide). Ebselen had no effects on retinal MTT reduction when coincubated with glutamate. However, when ebselen (100 and 400 μM) was coincubated with glutamate and remained in the incubation media until MTT evaluation (24 h after the beginning of incubation), it protected retinas against the decrease in MTT reduction induced by glutamate. These data indicate that besides its capacity to interact with Ca2+ channels, other mechanisms are involved in the neuroprotection afforded by ebselen in this work; possibly its antioxidant properties. / A excitotoxicidade refere-se ao processo neurodegenerativo iniciado pela ativação excessiva de receptores do neurotransmissor glutamato. Este processo é um dos mais extensivamente estudados processos de morte celular neuronal, e tem uma participação importante em muitas doenças do sistema nervoso central (SNC), incluindo isquemia, trauma e desordens neurodegenerativas. A morte celular excitotóxica parece envolver eventos patofisiológicos como influxo excessivo de cálcio e liberação deste íon de organelas intracelulares, produção de radicais de oxigênio e morte celular programada (apoptose). Neste trabalho, avaliamos os efeitos de três diorganil calcogenetos simples (disseleneto de difenila, ditelureto de difenila e telureto de difenila) e do ebselen sobre o influxo de 45Ca2+ estimulado por glutamato em retinas embrionárias de pintos, assim como seus efeitos sobre o dano neuronal excitotóxico nas retinas. Nenhum dos compostos testados interferiu com o influxo de 45Ca2+ basal. Os compostos disseleneto de difenila e ditelureto de difenila não apresentaram nenhum efeito sobre o influxo de 45Ca2+ estimulado pelo glutamato. O telureto de difenila (100-400 μM) reduziu o influxo de 45Ca2+ estimulado por glutamato, e o ebselen bloqueou (100-400 μM) o influxo de 45Ca2+ estimulado por glutamato (P<0,01) nas retinas isoladas de pinto. A avaliação do dano neuronal foi realizada espectrofotometricamente pela quantificação de MTT (brometo 3(4,5- dimetil-tiazol-2-il)-2,5-difenil tetrazolium) celularmente reduzido. O ebselen não teve efeito sobre a redução de MTT quando foi co-incubado com o glutamato. Contudo, quando o ebselen (100-400 μM) foi co-incubado com o glutamato, e permaneceu no meio de incubação até a avaliação do MTT (24 após o início da incubação), foi capaz de proteger as retinas contra o decréscimo na redução do MTT induzido pelo glutamato. Estes resultados indicam que apesar da sua capacidade de interagir com canais de Ca2+, outros mecanismos parecem estar envolvidos na neuroproteção exercida pelo ebselen neste trabalho, possivelmente suas propriedades antioxidantes.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-03-22T17:26:57Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Gabriela Lorea Godoi.pdf: 2588661 bytes, checksum: 727e9c41458c3dce6b21674525afb233 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2007-12-15 / Alzheimer s disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia among elder. Neuropathological hallmarks include amyloid plaque formation, neurofibrillary tangles, neuronal and synaptic loss. The deposit of senile plaques is consistent with induction of oxidative stress, and since free radical scavengers can alleviate amyloid-beta-induced oxidative stress markers, this study aims to identify the neuroprotective effects of the selenium compounds (ebselen and diphenyl diselenide) on the neurotoxicity of amyloid-beta in primary cultures of murine hippocampal neurons. Samples were subjected to immunocytochemistry and western blotting techniques to determine what influence the treatments may have on synaptic protein SNAP-25 and neuronal death. There was a strong increase in relative cell viability associated with ebselen and diphenyl diselenide treatment. Significant increases were observed in the level of synaptic marker synaptosomal-associated protein SNAP-25 with both selenium compounds treatment. Although demonstrated the potential protective effect of selenium compounds in the course of AD, further investigations of synaptic function are important as a therapeutic strategy for AD / .

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / Selenium (Se) is an essential micronutrient present in selenoproteins on living beins, in the form of the amino acid selenocysteine and selenomethionine. Chemically related to Se, tellurium (Te) has no biological function in mammals, however, organic Te compounds showed up as good antioxidant agents. Although ebselen (Ebs), diphenyl diselenide [(PhSe)2] and diphenyl ditelluride [(PhTe)2] present antioxidant properties via their glutathione peroxidase (GPx) mimetic activity, these compounds exhibit toxic effects at high concentrations due to its property in oxidizing thiols groups. However, the toxicity mechanism of these compounds through the modulation of gene expression was never studied in human cells. Thus, this study aimed to evaluate the cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of organochalcogens in human leukocytes, and evaluate their mechanisms through the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and modulation of antioxidant proteins expression, and to evaluate the relative amount of organochalcogens in contact with the cells in our ex vivo exposure model. Trypan s blue exclusion test and comet assay were used to evaluate, respectively, cytotoxicity and genotoxicity induced by the compounds. The fluorescence of dichlorofluorescein (DCFH) and propidium iodide (PI) were measured in leukocytes exposed by flow cytometry. The expression of the genes for the enzymes Catalase, Superoxide Dismutase 1, Glutathione Peroxidase 3, Glutathione Peroxidase 4, Thioredoxin Reductase 1 and Nrf-2 were analyzed. A dichloromethane extraction of the buffer and the pellet of the cells was injected into a GC-MS apparatus to evaluate the amount of compound in contact with cells. The compounds induced a reduction in cell viability only in the concentration of 50 μM, being Ebs the most cytotoxic compound, followed by (PhTe)2 and (PhSe)2, while (PhTe)2 was the only compound able of increasing the apoptotic rate of leukocytes, which happened at all concentrations (10-50 μM). (PhTe)2 increased DNA damage index in all tested concentrations (5-50 μM), while Ebs and (PhSe)2 did it only at 50 μM concentration. Surprisingly, (PhSe)2 was the only compound effective in increasing ROS production in all tested concentrations (10-50 μM), which was accompanied by an increase in the SOD1 expression and a decrease in CAT expression. All compounds were effective in decreasing the expression of GPX3 and NFE2L2 (Ebs > (PhTe)2 > (PhSe)2), and none altered the expression of GPX4 and TRXR1. The compounds were found in higher concentrations in leukocyte pellet extraction than in their buffer. We conclude that the toxicity of the compounds in question is not directly related to their property in inducing production of ROS. / O selênio (Se) é um micronutriente essencial presente nas selenoproteínas dos organismos vivos, na forma dos aminoácidos selenocisteína e selenometionina. Quimicamente relacionado ao Se, o telúrio (Te) não possui nenhuma função biológica nos mamíferos, porém, compostos orgânicos de Te se mostraram bons agentes antioxidantes. Apesar do ebselen (Ebs), disseleneto de difenila [(PhSe)2] e ditelureto de difenila [(PhTe)2] possuírem atividade mimética a enzima glutationa peroxidase (GPx), exibindo propriedades antioxidantes, estes compostos apresentam efeitos tóxicos em altas concentrações, devido a sua capacidade de oxidar grupos tióis. Porém, os mecanismos de toxicidade destes compostos através da modulação da expressão gênica nunca foram estudados em células humanas. Desta forma, este estudo objetivou avaliar a citotoxicidade e a genotoxidade dos organocalcogênios em leucócitos humanos, e avaliar seus mecanismos através da produção de espécies reativas de oxigênio (EROs) e modulação da expressão de proteínas antioxidantes, além de avaliar a quantidade relativa de organocalcogênio em contato com as células em nosso modelo de exposição ex vivo. O teste de exclusão do azul de Trypan e o ensaio cometa foram utilizados para avaliar, respectivamente, a citotoxicidade e a genotoxicidade dos organocalcogênios. A fluorescência da diclorofluoresceína (DCFH) e iodeto de propídeo (IP) foi medida nos leucócitos expostos por citometria de fluxo. A expressão dos genes para as enzimas Catalase, Superóxido Dismutase 1, Glutationa Peroxidase 3, Glutationa Peroxidase 4, Tiorredoxina Redutase 1 e Nrf-2 foram analisados. Uma extração de diclorometano do tampão e do pellet das células foi injetada em um aparelho de GC-MS para avaliar a quantidade de composto em contato com as células. Os organocalcogênios induziram a uma redução da viabilidade celular apenas na concentração de 50 μM, sendo que o efeito maior foi do Ebs, seguido pelo (PhTe)2 e pelo (PhSe)2, enquanto o (PhTe)2 foi o único composto capaz de aumentar a taxa apoptótica dos leucócitos, o que aconteceu em todas as concentrações (10-50 μM). O (PhTe)2 aumentou o índice de dano ao DNA em todas as concentrações testadas (5-50 μM), enquanto o Ebs e o (PhSe)2 o fizeram apenas na concentração de 50 μM. Surpreendentemente, o (PhSe)2 foi o único composto efetivo em aumentar a produção de EROs em todas as concentrações testadas (10-50 μM), o que foi acompanhado por um aumento na expressão da SOD1 e uma diminuição da expressão da CAT. Todos os compostos foram efeitovs em diminuir a expressão da GPX3 e do NFE2L2 (Ebs > (PhTe)2 > (PhSe)2), sendo que nenhum alterou a expressão da GPX4 e da TRXR1. Os organocalcogênios foram encontrados em maior concentração na extração do pellet de leucócitos do que no seu tampão. Concluímos que a toxicidade dos compostos em questão não está diretamente relacionada com a propriedade dos mesmos em produzir EROs.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) is an important regulatory enzyme that modulates cholinergic synapses by hydrolysis of acetylcholine (ACh), a neurotransmitter involved in many biological processes, especially in memory and cognition. Thus, AChE inhibitors were initially developed for the treatment of cognitive disorders, especially related to Alzheimer's disease. Currently, the inhibitors on the market, such as tacrine, rivastigmine, donepezil, galantamine, although efficient have limitations, such as low bioavailability, gastrointestinal and hepatic side effects. Ebselen, a synthetic organic compound of selenium, is considered a potent pharmacological agent due to its various effects already reported, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects, and also low toxicity attributed to the molecule. This compound crosses the blood brain barrier and is safe based on cellular toxicity and clinical trials Phase I-III. There is evidence that ebselen inhibits AChE activity ex vivo in brain rats, which generated great interest in further studies about its possible use as a treatment for cognitive dysfunction. In order to increase the knowledge about the mechanisms involved in this action, this study aimed to evaluate the effect of ebselen on the brain AChE activity in vitro by determining its IC50, the kinetic profile via Michaelis-Menten and Lineaweaver-Burk and as reversibility of inhibition by dialysis. The results show that ebselen inhibited AChE activity with an IC50 of 29 μM, similar to the value found for the purified electric eel AChE. Ebselen showed a mixed inhibition due to its increased Km and decreased Vmax. Besides, it was observed a reversible inhibition, because the AChE activity was recovered after 60 min of dialysis. Considering, the results obtained in this study, the use of ebselen as a therapeutic agent for treatment of diseases associated with cholinergic dysfunction should be considered, although behavioral studies of memory are required to support this hypothesis / A acetilcolinesterase (AChE) é uma importante enzima regulatória que modula as sinapses colinérgicas através da hidrólise da acetilcolina (ACh), um neurotransmissor envolvido em diversos processos biológicos, em especial na memória e na cognição. Dessa forma, os inibidores da AChE foram inicialmente desenvolvidos para o tratamento de disfunções cognitivas, principalmente relacionadas com a doença de Alzheimer. Os inibidores da AChE disponíveis no mercado, como, a tacrina, rivastigmina, donepezila, galantamina, apesar de eficientes apresentam limitações, como a baixa biodisponibilidade, e efeitos colaterais a nível gastrointestinal e hepático. O ebselen, um composto orgânico sintético de selênio, é considerado um potente agente farmacológico em função de seus diversos efeitos já reportados, entre eles antioxidante, anti-inflamatório e neuroprotetor, e também pela baixa toxicidade atribuída à molécula. Sabe-se que o ebselen atravessa a barreira hematoencefálica e é seguro com base na toxicidade celular e ensaios clínicos de Fase I-III. Há evidências de que o ebselen inibe a atividade da AChE cerebral em ratos ex vivo, o que gerou grande interesse por estudos mais aprofundados a respeito do seu possível uso como tratamento para disfunções cognitivas. Com o propósito de ampliar o conhecimento sobre os mecanismos envolvidos nesta ação, o presente estudo teve como objetivo avaliar o efeito do ebselen na atividade da AChE cerebral in vitro, determinando sua concentração que inibe a atividade da enzima em 50% (CI50), o perfil cinético via Michaelis-Menten e Lineaweaver-Burk, bem como a reversibilidade da inibição por diálise. Os resultados obtidos demonstraram que o ebselen inibiu a atividade da AChE com a CI50 de 29 μM, semelhante ao valor encontrado para a AChE purificada de enguia elétrica. O ebselen apresentou uma inibição de caráter misto, e reversível, devido ao aumento do Km e diminuição da Vmax. Além disso, observou-se uma inibição reversível, dado que a atividade da AChE foi recuperada após 60 minutos de diálise. Considerando os resultados obtidos neste estudo, o uso do ebselen como um agente terapêutico para o tratamento de doenças associadas às disfunções colinérgicas deve ser considerado, embora estudos comportamentais de memória sejam necessários para fundamentar esta hipótese.

Submitted by Rosana Moreira (rosanapsm@outlook.com) on 2018-11-16T14:03:33Z No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Dissertacao_EfeitoProtetorAntioxidantes.pdf: 4038157 bytes, checksum: c0a416b8ab84f3180a42bfe72996b302 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Edisangela Bastos (edisangela@ufpa.br) on 2019-01-30T14:23:58Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Dissertacao_EfeitoProtetorAntioxidantes.pdf: 4038157 bytes, checksum: c0a416b8ab84f3180a42bfe72996b302 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2019-01-30T14:23:58Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 0 bytes, checksum: d41d8cd98f00b204e9800998ecf8427e (MD5) Dissertacao_EfeitoProtetorAntioxidantes.pdf: 4038157 bytes, checksum: c0a416b8ab84f3180a42bfe72996b302 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-07-11 / A dapsona, utilizada na terapia da hanseníase, e seu metabólito, dapsona-hidroxilamina são potentes agentes pró-oxidantes que causam a metemoglobinemia adquirida. Para o tratamento desta doença é utilizado o Azul de Metileno, no entanto em altas doses este antidoto se torna pró-oxidante. Nesse sentido, antioxidantes podem ser alternativas potenciais ao AM para o tratamento da metemoglobinemia. Dessa forma, investigamos a capacidade de proteção do Ebselen, N-acetilcisteína, ácido R-lipóico e L-lipóico contra a oxidação da hemoglobina induzida por DDS-NOH em eritrócitos humanos in vitro. Nossos resultados demonstraram que o pré-tratamento com os antioxidantes Ebselen, N-acetilcisteina, ácido R-lipóico e ácido S-lipóico preveniu a formação de metemoglobina, a redução da glutationa e a peroxidação lipídica induzida pelo metabolito dapsona-hidroxilamina em eritrócitos humanos in vitro. Estas substâncias foram capazes de aumentar a capacidade antioxidante do eritrócito associado ao aumento da concentração de glutationa. Dessa forma, os antioxidantes atuaram reduzindo a oxidação da hemoglobina e/ou impediram direta ou indiretamente a ação do metabolito dapsona-hidroxilamina. Nossos resultados indicam que os antioxidantes testados podem proteger os eritrócitos contra o dano oxidativo nas condições experimentais, sugerindo que os antioxidantes podem servir como antídoto mais eficaz e seguro no tratamento da metemoglobinemia. / Dapsone used in leprosy therapy its metabolite dapsone-hydroxylamine are potent pro-oxidant agents that cause acquired methemoglobinemia. For the treatment of this disease is used as antidote the Methylene Blue, however in high doses this antidote becomes pro-oxidant. In this sense, antioxidant substances may be potential alternatives to methylene blue for the treatment of methemoglobinemia. In this study we investigated the effect of antioxidants Ebselen, N-acetylcysteine, R-lipoic acid and L-lipoic acid on oxidative damage induced by dapsone-hydroxylamine in human erythrocytes, in vitro. Our results demonstrated that pre-treatment with antioxidants Ebselen, N-acetylcysteine, R-lipoic acid and S-lipoic acid prevented the formation of methemoglobin, reduction of glutathione and lipid peroxidation induced by the metabolite dapsone-hydroxylamine in human erythrocytes, In vitro. These substances were able to increase the antioxidant capacity of the erythrocyte associated with increased concentration of glutathione. Thus, antioxidants acted to reduce the oxidation of hemoglobin and / or directly or indirectly impeded the action of the metabolite dapsone-hydroxylamine. Our results indicate that the antioxidants tested can protect erythrocytes against oxidative damage under experimental conditions, suggesting that antioxidants may serve as the most effective and safe antidote in the treatment of methemoglobinemia.

Although considered as a poison for long time, the importance of selenium as an essential trace element is now well recognized. In proteins, the redox active selenium moiety is incorportated as selenocysteine (Sec), the 21st amino acid. In mammals, selenium exerts its redox activities through several selenocysteine-containing enzymes, which include glutathione peroxidase (GPx), iodothyronine deiodinase (ID) and thioredoxin reductase (TrxR). Although these enzymes have Sec in their active sites, they catalyze completely different reactions and their substrate specificity and cofactor or co-substrate systems are significantly different. The most widely studied selenoenzyme GPx protects various organisms from oxidative stresses by catalyzing the reduction of hydroperoxides by using glutathione (GSH) as cofactor. The chemical aspects of the reduction of hydroperoxide by GPx have been extensively studied with the help of synthetic selenium and tellurium compounds. For example, 2-phenyl, 1, 2-benzoisoselenazol-3(2H)-one, commonly known as ebselen exhibits significant GPx activity by using GSH as cofactor. The anti-inflammatory, antiatherosclerotic and cytoprotective properties of ebselen have led to the design and synthesis of nex GPx mimics for potential therapeutic applications. In the first chapter, the importance of selenium in biochemistry in general and the function of selenoenzyme GPx and its synthetic mimics in particular are discussed. In the second chapter, the importance of ebselen as a GPx mimic and how thiol exchange reaction in the selenenyl sulfide intermediate deactivates its catalytic cycle and the possible ways to overcome thiol exchange reaction are described. The third chapter deals with the first synthetic chemical model that effectively mimics the unusual cyclization of sulfenic acid to a sulfenyl amide in protein Tyrosien Phosphatase 1B(PTP1B). PTP1B is a cysteine containing enzyme where the sulfenic acid (PTP1B-SOH) intermediate produced in response to its oxidation by H2O2 is rapidly converted into a sulfenyl amide species, in which sulfur atom of the catalytic cysteine is covalently bonded to the main chain nitrogen of an adjacent serine residue. This unusual protein modification in PTP1B has been proposed to protect the sulfur centre from irreversible oxidation to sulfinic acid and and sulfonic acids. In the fourth chapter, it is shown that not only the catalytic efficiency of ebselen but also its phosphatase like behavior is important for its antioxidant activity. Ebselen is regenerated from selenenic acid (R-SeOH) under a verity of conditions, which protects its selenium centre from irreversible oxidation and thus reduces its toxicity. The fifth chapter deals with spirodizaselenurane and Spirodiazatellurane. Although the chemistry of spirodioxyselenuranes and spirodiazasulfuranes has been studied extensively due to their interesting structural and stereochemical properties, there is no example of stable spirodiazaselenurane and its tellurium analogues. In the fifth chapter, the synthesis, structure and GPx-like activity of the spirodizzaselenurane and spirodiazatellurane are discussed. In summary, the synthetic sulfenic acids and seleneric acids undergo cyclization to their corresponding sulfenyl amides and selenenyl amides and thus protect their sulfur and selenium centers from irreversible inactivation. We have also observed that selenoxides and telluroxides with nearby amide moieties undergo cyclization to their corresponding cyclic spiro compounds. This unusual transformation of sulfenic acids has been recently discovered in PTP1B. As the redox regulation cycle of PTP1B and the catalytic cycle of GPx are similar we believe that GPx may involve a selenenyl amide intermediate in its catalytic cycle.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as superoxide radical anion (O2•¯), hydroxylradical (OH•), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and peroxynitrite (ONOO-) that are produced during the metabolism of oxygen under oxidative stress in aerobic organisms destroy several key biomolecules and lead to a number of disease states. Mammalian systems possess several effective defense mechanisms including antioxidant enzymes to detoxify these ROS. The selenocysteine-containing Glutathione peroxidase (GPx) is particularly an efficient enzyme in the detoxification of H2O2 and other hydroperoxides by using glutathione (GSH) as cofactor. The chemistry at the active siteof GPx has been extensively investigated with the help of synthetic selenium compounds. Although the anti-inflammatory compound ebselen(2-phenyl-1,2-benzoisoselenazol-3(2H)-one) is undergoing phase III clinical trial as antioxidant, the chemistry of ebselen is still not understood. The present study on a number of ebselen derivatives with various N-substitutions reveals that the substitution at the N atom is important for the antioxidant activity. This study also suggests that the nature for thiol cofactor has a dramatic effect on the GPx activity of ebselen derivatives. It has been shown that ebselen exhibits very poor catalytic activity in the presence of aromatic thiols mainly due to strong Se….O nonbonded interactions that lead to extensive thiol exchange reactions in the selenenyl sulfide intermediate. To prevent the se….O interactions, a series of tertiary amide-based diselenides have been synthesized along with their secondary amide counterparts. Detailed structure-activity correlation studies reveal that the GPx-like activity of the sec-amide-based compounds can be significantly enhanced by the substitution at the free-NH group of sec-amide functionality. The N,N-dialkylbenzylamine-based diselenides exhibit their catalytic activities via the generation of selenols which was confirmed by the reaction with anti-arthritic gold(I) compounds. Interestingly, the replacement of the hydrogen atom at the 6th position of the benzene ring of N,N-dialkylbenzylamine-based diselenides by a methoxy group prevents the thiol exchange reactions mainly be weakening the Se…N interactions and thus enhances the GPx activity. On the other hand, the catalytic activity of the tert-amine-based diselenides can also be increased by replacing the tert-amino groups with the corresponding sec-amine moieties. It has been observed that the basic amino group in the amine-based diselenides deprotonates the selenol and also the thiol cofactor, which is crucial for the higher catalytic activities of the amine-based compounds. Peroxynitrite (PN, ONOO), a strong nitrating agent, is known to inactivate a number of proteins, enzymes and other biomolecules by nitration of tyrosine residues. In this study, we have shown that the commonly used antithyroid drugs and their analogues inhibit protein tyrosine nitration. This study reveals that antithyroid agents having PN scavenging activity may be beneficial of hyperthyroidism as these compounds may protect the thyroid gland from nitrative or nitrosative stress.

<p>Over three million infections were reported in the United States of America in 2019. These infections were caused by either antibiotic-resistant pathogens or <i>Clostridioides difficile</i> and resulted in more than 50,000 deaths. Unfortunately, antibacterial agents are rapidly losing their ability to treat infections and the process of discovering new antibiotics is too slow to cope up with bacterial evolution. Repurposing FDA-approved drugs of well-studied safety, pharmacology and pharmacokinetics represents a faster alternative method of antibacterial drug discovery. Repurposing is more successful and less depleting method of drug discovery than classical de novo method in regard to both cost and time. In the following studies, two major pathogens are targeted, vancomycin-resistant <i>Enterococcus</i> (VRE) and <i>C. difficile</i>. Both bacteria are more prevalent in healthcare settings were more vulnerable population of elderly and immunocompromised individuals reside. In addition, healthcare settings are usually associated with higher frequency of receiving antibiotics which in turn, compromises the integrity of normal microbiota responsible for protection against invading pathogens. Furthermore, hospital stays are associated with exposure to bacterial shedding from other patients. Our aim was to identify FDA-approved drugs with novel ability to eradicate these two bacterial pathogens in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT). Notably, the GIT is considered the actual site of infection in case of <i>C. difficile while it is only a transition site for VRE where the bacteria colonize before causing true infections in other tissues. Studies against both bacteria started with an <i>in vitro</i> screening of FDA-approved drugs and clinical molecules to identify potential candidates for further investigation.</i></p><p><i>For VRE, two drugs where identified with potent inhibitory activity and favorable pharmacokinetic profiles, auranofin and ebselen. Auranofin was approved in the 1960s for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis due to its anti-inflammatory activity. Auranofin was found to exert potent bacteriostatic activity against both vancomycin-sensitive and vancomycin-resistant <i>Enterococcus</i> strains (minimum inhibitory concentration against 90% of the strains, MIC90 = 1 µg/mL). In addition, bacteria could not develop resistant mutants against auranofin upon prolonged exposure. On the other hand, ebselen is an organoselenium compounds currently in clinical trials for several indications. Similarly, ebselen was found to be a potent inhibitor of VRE growth (MIC90 = 2 µg/mL). In addition, ebselen successfully inhibited bacterial biofilm formation and eradicated mature biofilms. In a mouse model of VRE colonization, both drugs inhibited bacterial shedding and reduced bacterial counts in the GIT of the colonized animals.</i></p><p><i>For <i>C. difficile</i>, auranofin was also found to exert potent inhibitory activity against bacterial growth (MIC90 = 2 µg/mL), toxin production and spore formation. Additionally, it was beneficial in protecting colon cells against <i>C. difficile</i> toxin-induced inflammation. Further, auranofin was found to not promote growth of VRE as seen with the current anticlostridial agents. In addition to auranofin, two more antiprotozoal drugs were found to potently inhibit <i>C. difficile</i> growth, ronidazole and secnidazole. Both drugs are 5-nitroimidazoles approved for human (secnidazole) or veterinary (ronidazole) applications. Secnidazole and ronidazole halted <i>C. difficile</i> growth at very low concentrations (MIC90 = 0.5 and 0.125 µg/mL, respectively). Furthermore, both drugs were superior to metronidazole in bacterial killing and had favorable activities against protective gut microbiota. In addition, they demonstrated efficient protection to mice in a <i>C. difficile</i> infection model. </i></p><p><i>Overall, several drugs were presented to possess favorable activities against <i>C. difficile</i> or VRE. These drugs merit more evaluation as potential candidates for the treatment of infection caused by either bacteria. </i></p><div><i><br></i></div>