Magister Scientiae (Medical Bioscience) - MSc(MBS) / Even though Tulbaghia violacea has been used to treat and manage epilepsy in South Africa by traditional medicine practitioners, no evidence in any literature has shown any scientific scrutiny of the effectiveness of the plant species in therapy. This project was intended, therefore, to investigate the anticonvulsant effect of the leaf methanol extract of Tulbaghia violacea by studying its effect against tonic convulsion induced by either pentylenetetrazole (PTZ), bicuculline, picrotoxin, strychnine or N-methyl-DL-aspartic acid (NMDLA) in mice. Qualitative phytochemical analysis, acute toxicity and HPLC studies were also carried out on the plant species. The doses of 200 (mg/kg, i.p.) and 400 (mg/kg, i.p.) of the leaf methanol extract of T. Violacae significantly delayed the onset of PTZ (100 mg/kg, i.p.)-induced tonic convulsion in a dose dependent manner. Leaf methanol extract of the plant species (200 mg/kg, i.p.) did not affect the incidence of PTZ (100 mg/kg, i.p.)-induced tonic convulsion while 400 mg/kg (i.p.) protected only one mouse against the tonic convulsion. Leaf methanol extract of Tulbaghia violacea (100mg/kg, i.p.) did not significantly affect the onset or incidence of PTZ (100 mg/kg, i.p.)- induce tonic convulsion. Phenobarbitone (12 mg/kg, i.p.), diazepam (0.5 mg/kg, i.p.) and muscimol (2mg/kg, i.p.) significantly delayed the onset of PTZ (100 mg/kg, i.p.)-induced tonic convulsion and also significantly reduced the number of animals convulsing. Muscimol (0.2 mg/kg, i.p.) did not significantly affect the onset or incidence of PTZ (100 mg/kg, i.p.)-induced tonic convulsion. However, combined therapy of sub effective doses of the leaf methanol extract of T. Violacea (100 mg/kg, i.p.) and muscimol (0.2 mg/kg, i.p.) significantly delayed the onset of PTZ (100mg/kg, i.p.)-induced tonic convulsion and but did not significantly reduce the number of animals convulsing. The combined therapy of sub effective doses of the leaf methanol extract of T. violacea (100 mg/kg, i.p.) and muscimol (0.2 mg/kg, i.p.) protected two of the mice against the tonic convulsion. Leaf methanol extract of Tulbaghia violacea (100-400 mg/kg, i.p.) significantly and dose dependently delayed the onset of tonic convulsion produced by bicuculline (30 mg/kg, i.p.), picrotoxin (20 mg/kg, i.p.) or NMDLA (400 mg/kg, i.p.)-induced tonic convulsion but did not affect the incidence of any of the convulsions. Phenobarbitone (12 mg/kg, i.p.), diazepam (0.5 mg/kg, i.p.) or muscimol (2 mg/kg, i.p.) significantly delayed the onset of bicuculline (30 mg/kg, i.p.) or picrotoxin (20 mg/kg, i.p.)-induced tonic convulsion and also significantly reduced the number of animals convulsing. Phenobarbitone (12 mg/kg, i.p.) or diazepam (0.5 mg/kg, i.p.) did affect significantly affect the onset or incidence of NMDLA (400 mg/kg, i.p.)-induced tonic convulsion. LY233053 (5 mg/kg, i.p.) significantly delayed the onset of tonic convulsion produced by NMDLA (400 mg/kg, i.p.) and also significantly reduced the number of animals convulsing. Leaf methanol extract of Tulbaghia violacea (200 and 400 mg/kg, i.p.) significantly delayed the onset of strychnine (2 mg/kg, i.p.)-induced tonic convulsion but did not significantly affect the number of mice convulsing. The dose of 100 mg/kg (i.p.) of leaf methanol extract of T. violacea did not significantly affect the onset or incidence of strychnine (2 mg/kg, i.p.)-induced tonic convulsion. Phenobarbitone (12 mg/kg, i.p.) significantly delayed the onset of strychnine (2 mg/kg, i.p.)-induced tonic convulsion and also significantly reduced the number of animals convulsing. Diazepam (0.5 mg/kg, i.p.) did not significantly delay the onset of strychnine (2 mg/kg, i.p.)-induced tonic convulsion and also did not significantly affect the number of mice convulsing. Phenytoin (30 mg/kg, i.p.) or DMSO (0.25 ml, i.p.) did not significantly affect the onset or incidence of bicuculline (30 mg/kg, i.p.), picrotoxin, strychnine or NMDLA-induced tonic convulsion. The qualitative phytochemical analysis of the plant species showed the presence of alkaloids, saponins, cardiac glycosides, flavonoids, triterpene steroids, quinones and tannins. The LD50 value obtained following oral administration of the leaf methanol extract of Tulbaghia violacea may be greater than 4000 mg/kg. The HPLC fingerprint of the leaf methanol extract of Tulbaghia violacea showed distinct peaks at the following retention times, 2.911, 3.269, 4.010, 7.597, and 15.122 min. The results obtained in this study indicate that the leaf methanol extract of Tulbaghia violacea has anticonvulsant activity. The results obtained also indicate that GABA, glutamic acid and glycine mechanisms may probably be involved in the anticonvulsant activity of the plant extract. The relatively high LD50 obtained for the plant species, given orally, indicate that it is safe in mice.

Thesis (MTech (Horticulture))--Cape Peninsula University of Technology, 2018. / Deteriorating living and environmental conditions have contributed to the increasing prevalence of diseases in plants and animals. In humans, accumulation of abnormally high levels of free radicals in the tissues has been implicated in many non-communicable diseases, such as diabetes, cancer, arthritis, ischemia, gastritis, obesity and asthma. Worldwide, there is recognition of need to improve plant and animal health. Tulbaghia violacea (Alliaceae) is a medicinal plant that is extensively harvested by traditional healers in the wild for its medicinal uses and if this practice continues, it may result in an unsolicited decline of the species in situ. Therefore, there is a need for cultivation of this species. Plant cultivation in a controlled environment for conservation purposes as well as the enhancement of yield and quality is gaining favour among farmers and consumers. The main aim of this study was to investigate the effects of altering the growing conditions by applying environmental stresses on the plant growth, antifungal and antioxidant activities of T. violacea, with the view of enhancing the future cultivation of this species for pharmaceutical companies, traditional healers and the horticulture industry. This study was divided into two parts, and the first part, which was further sub-divided into two separate preliminary experiments, is presented in chapter three. Simultaneous assessments of the effects of i) varied pH levels (pH 4, pH 6, pH 8) and ii) light intensity on plant growth, antioxidant-content and -capacity of extracts of T. violacea were carried out. The second part of the thesis consisted of a more detailed assessment of the above-mentioned independent variables and interactions thereof on plant growth, and antifungal activity of extracts of T. violacea. Results obtained from the first part of the study, showed that plants exposed to pH 6 showed a marked increase in plant height (from 25-37 cm) after 2 months of treatment although, generally, the variations of the different growth parameters among the pH treatments were not significant (p > 0.05). Antioxidant-contents and -capacity were not significantly different (p > 0.05) when pH treatments were compared. However, a high polyphenol content value (of 3 mg/g) occurred in leaves of plants exposed to pH 8. Overall, comparatively, there was no significant difference (p > 0.05) in antioxidant-content and -capacity when pH treatments. In the light experiment, decreasing light intensity led to the elongation of plant height. A higher mean shoot length of 34.6 cm was obtained under low light compared to normal light (26.5 cm) two months post-treatment. The results obtained in this study indicated that light had a significant affect (p < 0.05) on the vegetative growth of this species. In contrast, normal light intensity yielded higher antioxidant-content and -capacity. The polyphenol and flavanol content were fluctuating between the averages of 5.8 mg/g to 8.5 mg/g. Overall, there was a significant difference (p < 0.05) in the antioxidant-content and -capacity when low and normal light intensity treatments compared. In conclusion, both normal light intensity and at pH 8 induced better antioxidant results. In the second part of the study, chapter four, one-month old T. violacea plantlets were grown under two light intensities (low light and normal light) in a greenhouse and concurrently exposed to varying pH levels: pH 4, pH 6 and pH 8. Plants exposed to normal light received natural sunlight through the roof of the greenhouse, while low light intensity (40% reduction) was achieved using shade nets. Plants were drip irrigated with Nutrifeed fertilizer. Plant growth parameters such as height and fresh and dry weights were determined. Leaf samples were analysed for macro-and micro-nutrients contents. Antifungal tests were carried out on the plant extracts from the various treatments in an antifungal bioassay (minimum inhibitory concentration [MIC]). The experimental data collected were analysed using one and two-way analyses of variance (ANOVA), and Tukey HSD was used to separate the means at p < 0.05 level of significance. Varied effects of different pH levels (4, 6 and 8) and light intensities (low and normal) on plant height, and fresh and dry weights were recorded in the current study. A significant interactive (df, 2; F = 0.001; p < 0.001) effect between pH and light on fresh weight was observed. The results revealed that there was a significant difference (df, 2, 57; F = 12.63; p < 0.001) in dry weights with plants under normal light intensity and pH 4 treatment (8.285 ± 0.802 g) producing the highest dry weight. There was a significant interaction (df, 2; F = 6.4; p < 0.001) between pH and light intensity on plant dry weight. Extracts from plants grown under normal light intensity showed stronger antifungal activity at pH level 4, and MIC values ranged from 0.18 ± 0 to 0.375 ± 0.04 mg/ml at 6h and 1.5 ± 0 to 0.97 ± 0.18 mg/ml at 18h. In conclusion, this study demonstrated the interactive effects of pH and light intensity on the growth of T. violacea. These findings also confirmed that it is possible to enhance the cultivation of T. violacea under greenhouse conditions. Chapter 5 focused on the interactive effects of pH and watering regime on plant growth, nutrient uptake and antifungal activity of T. violacea plant extracts, grown hydroponically. The results showed that there were significant differences (p < 0.05) on plant growth parameters amongst the different watering regimes under normal light intensity. Broadly, two trends occurred in the results: firstly, more macro-nutrients were taken up by plants in the higher frequency watering intervals as opposed to higher tissue micronutrient nutrient values for plants grown under the lower light intensity conditions. The levels of N, P, K, Mg nutrient uptake differed significantly in plants (p < 0.001) among watering interval periods. On the other hand, plants simultaneously exposed to extended watering intervals of 21-day and low light intensity showed more bioactivity of the crude extracts against F. oxysporum in the MIC bioassay. Based on the current results, a combination of shorter watering interval and normal light intensity favoured plant growth and development, while plants grown under low light intensity with longer watering interval showed good bioactivity. Broadly, these results demonstrated that varying pH, light intensity, and watering regime can influence plant growth, secondary metabolite contents and antifungal activity of crude extracts of T. violacea. These findings will contribute to the current body of knowledge around cultivation of indigenous medicinal plants. The study will further benefit the conservation of medicinal plant initiatives, increased income of small-scale farmers and potentially promote indigenous knowledge by increasing the availability of South African medicinal plants.

Natural products have been a source of many pharmaceutical drugs and a number of drugs that are currently used in the treatment of cancer are derivatives of compounds originally isolated from natural products. There is evidence that extracts of Tulbaghia violacea can be used to treat cancer. The activation of apoptosis in cancer cells is a target for the development of novel anti-cancer drugs since one of the characteristics of cancer cells is resistance to apoptosis due to the deregulation of biochemical pathways leading to apoptosis. In fact, many current anti-cancer drugs exert their effects through the activation of apoptosis. Previous studies showed that extracts of T.violacea induce apoptosis in cancer cells and one study reported on the isolation of a compound (methyl-ԃ-D-glucopyranoside), which is responsible for the pro-apoptotic activity of the T.violacea extract. Therefore the aim of this study was to investigate the anti-cancer activity of methyl-ԃ-Dglucopyranoside and extracts prepared from T.violacea. In this study the pro-apoptotic activity of methyl-ԃ-D-glucopyranoside and extracts prepared from T.violacea were investigated on a panel of human cancer cell lines, which included HepG2, MCF7, H157, HT29 and the non-cancerous cell line, KMST6. The induction of apoptosis was evaluated by flow cytometry using several bioassays which measures biochemical events (caspase activation, phosphatidylserine externalisation and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production that is associated with the induction of apoptosis. The results demonstrated that the effects of methyl--D-glucopyranoside on cultured cells are transient and that the cells recover from the effects of methyl--D-glucopyranoside. This suggested thatmethyl-ԃ-D-glucopyranoside is not the compound responsible for the pro-apoptotic bioactivity in the T.violacea extract. This study also showed that cytotoxic and pro-apoptotic bioactivity of the leaf-extract was significantly higher in comparison to the tuber-extract. The bioactivity of the organic solvent extracts (dichloromethane, hexane, methanol and 50% methanol/water) of T.violacea leaves was also significantly higher than water extracts of T.violacea leaves. A comparison of the different organic extracts prepared from the T.violacea leaves showed that the highest activity was observed for the dichloromethane and hexane extracts. In an effort to identify the bioactive compound(s) the dichloromethane extract was subjected to Versaflash® column chromatography. However, due to problems experienced with the solubility of the dichloromethane sub-fractions, these compounds could not be tested for their bioactivity. Palmitone (16-hentriacontanone) was identified as one of the major compounds present in the dichloromethane sub-fractions. This compound was previously shown to have anticonvulsant bioactivity but there is no evidence in the literature that it has anti-cancer or pro-apoptotic activities. Fingerprinting of the methanol extract showed the presence of long chain fatty acid derivatives, flavonoids and allicin derivatives in the methanol extract. Although, this study failed to isolate the pro-apoptotic bioactive compound(s) present in the extracts of T.violacea, it confirmed that extracts of this plant induce apoptosis in cultured human cancer cell lines.

Natural products have been a source of many pharmaceutical drugs and a number of drugs that are currently used in the treatment of cancer are derivatives of compounds originally isolated from natural products. There is evidence that extracts of Tulbaghia violacea can be used to treat cancer. The activation of apoptosis in cancer cells is a target for the development of novel anti-cancer drugs since one of the characteristics of cancer cells is resistance to apoptosis due to the deregulation of biochemical pathways leading to apoptosis. In fact, many current anti-cancer drugs exert their effects through the activation of apoptosis. Previous studies showed that extracts of T.violacea induce apoptosis in cancer cells and one study reported on the isolation of a compound (methyl-ԃ-D-glucopyranoside), which is responsible for the pro-apoptotic activity of the T.violacea extract. Therefore the aim of this study was to investigate the anti-cancer activity of methyl-ԃ-Dglucopyranoside and extracts prepared from T.violacea. In this study the pro-apoptotic activity of methyl-ԃ-D-glucopyranoside and extracts prepared from T.violacea were investigated on a panel of human cancer cell lines, which included HepG2, MCF7, H157, HT29 and the non-cancerous cell line, KMST6. The induction of apoptosis was evaluated by flow cytometry using several bioassays which measures biochemical events (caspase activation, phosphatidylserine externalisation and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production that is associated with the induction of apoptosis. The results demonstrated that the effects of methyl--D-glucopyranoside on cultured cells are transient and that the cells recover from the effects of methyl--D-glucopyranoside. This suggested thatmethyl-ԃ-D-glucopyranoside is not the compound responsible for the pro-apoptotic bioactivity in the T.violacea extract. This study also showed that cytotoxic and pro-apoptotic bioactivity of the leaf-extract was significantly higher in comparison to the tuber-extract. The bioactivity of the organic solvent extracts (dichloromethane, hexane, methanol and 50% methanol/water) of T.violacea leaves was also significantly higher than water extracts of T.violacea leaves. A comparison of the different organic extracts prepared from the T.violacea leaves showed that the highest activity was observed for the dichloromethane and hexane extracts. In an effort to identify the bioactive compound(s) the dichloromethane extract was subjected to Versaflash® column chromatography. However, due to problems experienced with the solubility of the dichloromethane sub-fractions, these compounds could not be tested for their bioactivity. Palmitone (16-hentriacontanone) was identified as one of the major compounds present in the dichloromethane sub-fractions. This compound was previously shown to have anticonvulsant bioactivity but there is no evidence in the literature that it has anti-cancer or pro-apoptotic activities. Fingerprinting of the methanol extract showed the presence of long chain fatty acid derivatives, flavonoids and allicin derivatives in the methanol extract. Although, this study failed to isolate the pro-apoptotic bioactive compound(s) present in the extracts of T.violacea, it confirmed that extracts of this plant induce apoptosis in cultured human cancer cell lines.

Allium sativum and Tulbaghia violacea are some of the most important medicinal plants used by South African traditional healers for the treatment of flu, fever, cold, tuberculosis, asthma and many more diseases. However, growth, yield and quality are constrained by excessive and under fertilization. This study was carried out to determine, firstly, the effect of N source (ammonium sulphate and calcium nitrate) on yield and quality of A. sativum and T. violacea plants. Secondly, to determine the best season for harvesting T. violacea and lastly, to determine the antifungal effects of A. sativum and T. violacea plant extracts against plant pathogens Altenaria solani and Sclerotium rolfsii. Both plants were treated with both N sources applied as topdressing treatments at a total of 0, 50, 100, 150 and 200 kg.ha-1, divided into three applications at three week (A. sativum) and three month (T. violacea) intervals. A. sativum plants were sampled at 54, 82, 112, 140 and 175 days after planting (DAP) while, T. violacea plants were sampled monthly for ten months. Parameters recorded were growth analysis, yield and bioactivity for both plant species. Both nitrogen sources improved plant growth and yield of A. sativum and T. violacea plants. Calcium nitrate at 150 kg•ha-1 and ammonium sulphate at 200 kg•ha-1 produced the highest at 24 t•ha-1 and 27 t•ha-1, respectively. Ammonium sulphate improved bioactivity of leaves with the highest bioactivity recorded at 82 and 112 DAP. Yield obtained from the autumn harvest was not affected by N source. Ammonium sulphate and calcium nitrate at 200 kg•ha-1 produced the highest yields of 23.6 t•ha-1 and 23.5 t•ha-1, respectively. In contrast, yield obtained from the winter harvest was affected by N source at 200 kg•ha-1, with significantly better yield of 30.8 t•ha-1 with calcium nitrate compared to 27.4 t•ha-1 with ammonium sulphate. Crude extracts of T. violacea bulbs that were treated with ammonium sulphate significantly inhibited the growth of plant pathogenic fungi, whereas extracts from plants treated with calcium nitrate showed low bioactivity. Extracts from plants grown with ammonium sulphate at 100 kg•ha-1 were more effective in controlling growth of plant pathogens when compared to other N levels. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) effects of A. sativum against S. rolfsii and A. solani were at 0.01 mg•mL-1. The MIC of T. violacea extracts against A. solani was at 0.006 mg•mL<Sup>-1. The MIC of T. violacea extracts were better than previously reported in literature. Therefore, A. sativum and T. violacea plant extracts can be used as fungicides against S. rolfsii and A. solani diseases for crops such as tomato and potato. / Dissertation (MInstAgrar)--University of Pretoria, 2010. / Plant Production and Soil Science / unrestricted

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / Natural products have been a source of many pharmaceutical drugs and a number of drugs that are currently used in the treatment of cancer are derivatives of compounds originally isolated from natural products. There is evidence that extracts of Tulbaghia violacea can be used to treat cancer. The activation of apoptosis in cancer cells is a target for the development of novel anti-cancer drugs since one of the characteristics of cancer cells is resistance to apoptosis due to the deregulation of biochemical pathways leading to apoptosis. In fact, many current anti-cancer drugs exert their effects through the activation of apoptosis. Previous studies showed that extracts of T.violacea induce apoptosis in cancer cells and one study reported on the isolation of a compound (methyl-ԃ-D-glucopyranoside), which is responsible for the pro-apoptotic activity of the T.violacea extract. Therefore the aim of this study was to investigate the anti-cancer activity of methyl-ԃ-Dglucopyranoside and extracts prepared from T.violacea. In this study the pro-apoptotic activity of methyl-ԃ-D-glucopyranoside and extracts prepared from T.violacea were investigated on a panel of human cancer cell lines, which included HepG2, MCF7, H157, HT29 and the non-cancerous cell line, KMST6. The induction of apoptosis was evaluated by flow cytometry using several bioassays which measures biochemical events (caspase activation, phosphatidylserine externalisation and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production that is associated with the induction of apoptosis. The results demonstrated that the effects of methyl--D-glucopyranoside on cultured cells are transient and that the cells recover from the effects of methyl--D-glucopyranoside. This suggested thatmethyl-ԃ-D-glucopyranoside is not the compound responsible for the pro-apoptotic bioactivity in the T.violacea extract. This study also showed that cytotoxic and pro-apoptotic bioactivity of the leaf-extract was significantly higher in comparison to the tuber-extract. The bioactivity of the organic solvent extracts (dichloromethane, hexane, methanol and 50% methanol/water) of T.violacea leaves was also significantly higher than water extracts of T.violacea leaves. A comparison of the different organic extracts prepared from the T.violacea leaves showed that the highest activity was observed for the dichloromethane and hexane extracts. In an effort to identify the bioactive compound(s) the dichloromethane extract was subjected to Versaflash® column chromatography. However, due to problems experienced with the solubility of the dichloromethane sub-fractions, these compounds could not be tested for their bioactivity. Palmitone (16-hentriacontanone) was identified as one of the major compounds present in the dichloromethane sub-fractions. This compound was previously shown to have anticonvulsant bioactivity but there is no evidence in the literature that it has anti-cancer or pro-apoptotic activities. Fingerprinting of the methanol extract showed the presence of long chain fatty acid derivatives, flavonoids and allicin derivatives in the methanol extract. Although, this study failed to isolate the pro-apoptotic bioactive compound(s) present in the extracts of T.violacea, it confirmed that extracts of this plant induce apoptosis in cultured human cancer cell lines.

Magister Scientiae (Medical Bioscience) - MSc(MBS) / Endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs) are exogenous compounds/chemicals which interfere with, or have adverse effects on the production, distribution and function of natural hormones, thereby affecting normal endocrine activity, health and quality of life of both humans and wildlife. The reproductive system is highly susceptible to EDCs due to it being controlled by an array of hormonal signals. The effects of EDCs on the male reproductive system include infertility, decreased sperm count, function and morphology, abnormal development of secondary sex characteristics, reproductive function and sexual behaviour as well as decreased libido. There are various sources by which EDCs enter the environment which include effluents from several industries (mining, agriculture, smelting, hazardous waste sites, manufacturing industries, etc.), sewage treatment effluents, urban and agricultural runoff and effluents which include natural and pharmaceutical chemicals excreted in the urine of humans and domestic livestock, pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls, dioxins, plasticizers, surfactants, etc. Humans and animals can also be affected by EDCs by consuming food containing endocrine active substances. The growing concern regarding adverse effects due to EDC exposure of humans and wildlife, as well as the increased incidence of EDC contamination has prompted extensive research into the development and validation of screening tests to detect and monitor known EDCs and new substances with endocrine-disrupting capability. These screening tests involve assessing the effect of known and potential EDCs on reproductive function and development as well as hormone production. To assess the effect of EDCs on the reproductive system different methods are employed which include in vitro, in vivo and ex vivo methods. In vitro methods have been suggested as a suitable screening tool for EDC monitoring due to low costs, reduced animal usage, the use of standard and basic equipment as well as the ability to screen a large number of samples with multiple endpoints. Of the available in vitro methods, the minced testes method has been suggested as the most suitable method for screening EDCs and for this reason has been employed in this study. The aim of this study was thus to employ a minced testes method to screen samples for male reproductive toxicity using cell viability and hormone production (testosterone and estradiol) as endpoints.The first objective of this study was to optimize an in vitro testicular cell culture assay by determining both optimal luteinizing hormone (LH)&nbsp; concentration and incubation time needed for testosterone production. Testicular cell cultures were prepared and cells were treated with varying concentrations of LH (10, 1, 0.1, 0.01 and 0 mu/ml) and incubated for 4 hours and 20 hours. Testosterone production was evaluated for each incubation period. Testosterone production was significantly increased for both incubation periods at all LH concentrations tested as compared to the control. For both incubation periods, there was no significant difference in testosterone production between the different LH concentrations tested. From the data obtained, the 4 hour incubation period as well as the LH concentration of 10 mu/ml were selected as optimal for the testicular cell culture assay. The second objective of this study was to determine the effect of Tulbaghia violacea Harv. on the male reproductive system. T. violacea is a plant species indigenous to southern Africa and is used locally as a herbal remedy/medicine to treat several ailments. Cells were treated with varying concentrations of the T. violacea ethanol extract (with/without LH-treatment) and incubated for 4 hours. Hormone production and cell viability were evaluated. The results obtained from this pilot in vitro study demonstrated that the ethanol extract of T.violacea has androgenic properties by significantly increasing LH-induced testosterone production in mouse testes with no significant change in cell viability. The third objective of this study was to assess the effect of Sutherlandia frutescens(L.) R.Br and Artemisia afra Jacq. Ex Willd. on the male reproductive system. S. frutescens and A. afra are also plant species indigenous to southern Africa and used locally as a herbal remedy/medicine to treat several ailments. Ethanol extracts of each plant was prepared and cells were treated with varying concentrations of each extract (0, 156.25, 312.5, 625, 1250,2500 and 5000 &mu;g/ml) with or without LH-treatment and incubated for 4 hours. Cytotoxicity by LDH measurement and hormone production (testosterone and estradiol) were endpoints that were evaluated. The results obtained showed that the ethanol extracts of both plants are not cytotoxic to testicular cells and that A. afra decreases testosterone production at high concentrations. The fourth and final objective of this study was to assess the acute effect of four heavy metals, namely manganese, copper, cadmium and magnesium on the male reproductive system. These heavy metals are used extensively in manufacturing and mining industries. Cells were treated with varying concentrations of each metal salt (200, 100, 50, 25, 12.5, and 6.25 & mu;M) with or without LH-treatment and incubated for 4 hours. Endpoints evaluated included cell viability, testosterone and estradiol production. The results obtained showed that manganese, cadmium and copper are highly toxic to testicular cells in vitro and therefore may potentially cause reproductive toxicity. / South Africa

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / Fusarium verticil/ioides (Sacc) Nirenberg a common phytopathogen of maize and maize-based products produces fumonisin B (FB) mycotoxins that have been related to several diseases such as equine leukoencephalomalacia (ELEM), porcine pulmonary edema (PPE), liver toxicity in several animals and esophageal and liver cancer in humans. In one of our studies we hypothesize that aqueous extracts of indigenous South African wild garlic species (Tulbaghia violacea, T. alliacea and T. simmleri) may enhance the efficacy of the fungicides, SporekilPu, Thiram, Itraconazole and Fluconazole against F. verticil/ioides (MRC 826). Data analysis from in vitro results indicates that for the 16 different mixtures of each plant extract and fungicide combination, several significantly (P<O.05) higher growth inhibition responses were produced. More synergistic interactions were observed for the combinations of sporekill with T. violacea (62%) and T. alliacea (75%) than for T. simmleri (25%) .. Mixtures between the azole fungicides and T. simmleri produced 94 % synergistic interactions. Combination of fungicides and plant compounds offers the opportunity to find synergistic mixtures and may validate disease control strategies with increased biological activity and low dose rate application. Modulation studies of hepatic drug metabolizing enzymes and oxidative properties of AI/ium sativum, Tulbaghia violacea and T. alliacea in male Fischer rats were also evaluated. Due to its complex phytochemical composition a battery of assays were used to evaluate antioxidant potential. The extracts exhibited no adverse effects in the liver and kidneys of the rats. Total plasma iron was not affected showing no evidence for iron catalyzed lipid peroxidation. An increase was noted in hepatic ORAC values for rats consuming T. violacea and T. al/iacea. However, no correlation was observed between the phenolic intake by the rats and the increased hepatic ORAC levels. In this study, pre-treatment with aqueous extracts of T. violacea, T. al/iacea and A. sativum resulted in a significant elevation in GSH levels, induction of GST -IJ and UDP-GT and modulation of CAT and SOD. This modulated oxidative status and phase II drug metabolizing enzymes in the liver may protect the liver against the adverse effects related to oxidative damage and mutagenesis. The chemoprotective properties of crude aqueous extracts of A. sativum, T. violacea and T. alliacea were investigated on preneoplastic foci formation promoted by culture material of F. verticil/ioides MRC 826 utilizing diethylnitrosamine (DEN) as cancer initiator. Clinical chemical parameters related to liver and kidney function and decreased body weight gain suggesting that severe, acute liver injury had been induced in the positive control (DEN-eMF) rats, while the levels were mostly reduced by the garlic treatments. This study further indicates that T. alliaceae (2 % w/v) and A. sativum (1% w/v) treatment suppressed GST-P+ foci formation with the modulation of GST-0 phase II detoxification enzymes, as well as the antioxidant enzyme, SOD (T. alliaceae) and decreased GSH levels as being possible mechanisms of protection. These results provide new evidence showing the modulation of phase II drug metabolizing enzymes and the oxidative status in the liver of rats by the wild garlic species as well as A. sativum.

<p>Endocrine&ndash / disrupting compounds (EDCs) are exogenous compounds/chemicals which interfere with, or have adverse effects on the production, distribution and function of natural hormones, thereby affecting normal endocrine activity, health and quality of life of both humans and wildlife. The reproductive system is highly susceptible to EDCs due to it being controlled by an array of hormonal signals. The effects of EDCs on the male reproductive system include infertility, decreased sperm count, function and morphology, abnormal development of secondary sex characteristics, reproductive function and sexual behaviour as well as decreased libido. There are various sources by which EDCs enter the environment which include effluents from several industries (mining, agriculture, smelting, hazardous waste sites, manufacturing industries, etc.), sewage treatment effluents, urban and agricultural runoff and effluents which include natural and pharmaceutical chemicals excreted in the urine of humans and domestic livestock, pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls, dioxins, plasticizers, surfactants, etc. Humans and animals can also be affected by EDCs by consuming food containing endocrine active substances. The growing concern regarding adverse effects due to EDC exposure of humans and wildlife, as well as the increased incidence of EDC contamination has prompted extensive research into the development and validation of screening tests to detect and monitor known EDCs and new substances with endocrine-disrupting capability. These screening tests involve assessing the effect of known and potential EDCs on reproductive function and development as well as&nbsp / hormone production. To assess the effect of EDCs on the reproductive system different methods are employed which include in vitro, in vivo and ex vivo methods. In vitro methods have been suggested as a suitable screening tool for EDC monitoring due to low costs, reduced animal usage, the use of standard and basic equipment as well as the ability to screen a large number of samples with multiple endpoints. Of the available in vitro methods, the minced testes method has been suggested as the most suitable method for screening EDCs and for this reason has been employed in this study. The aim of this study was thus to employ a minced testes method to screen samples for male reproductive toxicity using cell viability and hormone production (testosterone and estradiol) as endpoints.The first objective of this study was to optimize an in vitro testicular cell culture assay by determining both optimal luteinizing hormone (LH)&nbsp / concentration and incubation time needed for testosterone production. Testicular cell cultures were prepared and cells were treated with varying concentrations of LH (10, 1, 0.1, 0.01 and 0 mu/ml) and incubated for 4 hours and 20 hours. Testosterone production was evaluated for each incubation period. Testosterone production was significantly increased for both incubation periods at all LH concentrations tested as compared to the control. For both incubation periods, there was no significant difference in testosterone production between the different LH concentrations tested. From the data obtained, the 4 hour incubation period as well as the LH concentration of 10 mu/ml were selected as optimal for the testicular cell culture assay. The second objective of this study was to determine the effect of Tulbaghia violacea Harv. on the male reproductive system. T. violacea is a plant species indigenous to southern Africa and is used locally as a herbal remedy/medicine to treat several ailments. Cells were treated with varying concentrations of the T. violacea ethanol extract (with/without LH-treatment) and incubated for 4 hours. Hormone production and cell viability were evaluated. The results obtained from this pilot in vitro study demonstrated that the ethanol extract of T.violacea has androgenic properties by significantly increasing LH-induced testosterone production in mouse testes with no significant change in cell viability. The third objective of this study was to assess the effect of Sutherlandia frutescens(L.) R.Br and Artemisia afra Jacq. Ex Willd. on the male reproductive system. S. frutescens and A. afra are also plant species indigenous to southern Africa and used locally as a herbal remedy/medicine to treat several ailments. Ethanol extracts of each plant was prepared and cells were treated with varying concentrations of each extract (0, 156.25, 312.5, 625, 1250,2500 and 5000 &mu / g/ml) with or without LH-treatment and incubated for 4 hours. Cytotoxicity by LDH measurement and hormone production (testosterone and estradiol) were endpoints that were evaluated. The results obtained showed that the ethanol extracts of both plants are not cytotoxic to testicular cells and that A. afra decreases testosterone production at high concentrations. The fourth and final objective of this study was to assess the acute effect of four heavy metals, namely manganese, copper, cadmium and magnesium on the male reproductive system. These heavy metals are used extensively in manufacturing and mining industries. Cells were treated with varying concentrations of each metal salt (200, 100, 50, 25, 12.5, and 6.25&nbsp / &mu / M) with or without LH-treatment and incubated for 4 hours. Endpoints evaluated included cell viability, testosterone and estradiol production. The results obtained showed that manganese, cadmium and copper are highly toxic to testicular cells in vitro and therefore may potentially cause reproductive toxicity.</p>

<p>Endocrine&ndash / disrupting compounds (EDCs) are exogenous compounds/chemicals which interfere with, or have adverse effects on the production, distribution and function of natural hormones, thereby affecting normal endocrine activity, health and quality of life of both humans and wildlife. The reproductive system is highly susceptible to EDCs due to it being controlled by an array of hormonal signals. The effects of EDCs on the male reproductive system include infertility, decreased sperm count, function and morphology, abnormal development of secondary sex characteristics, reproductive function and sexual behaviour as well as decreased libido. There are various sources by which EDCs enter the environment which include effluents from several industries (mining, agriculture, smelting, hazardous waste sites, manufacturing industries, etc.), sewage treatment effluents, urban and agricultural runoff and effluents which include natural and pharmaceutical chemicals excreted in the urine of humans and domestic livestock, pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls, dioxins, plasticizers, surfactants, etc. Humans and animals can also be affected by EDCs by consuming food containing endocrine active substances. The growing concern regarding adverse effects due to EDC exposure of humans and wildlife, as well as the increased incidence of EDC contamination has prompted extensive research into the development and validation of screening tests to detect and monitor known EDCs and new substances with endocrine-disrupting capability. These screening tests involve assessing the effect of known and potential EDCs on reproductive function and development as well as&nbsp / hormone production. To assess the effect of EDCs on the reproductive system different methods are employed which include in vitro, in vivo and ex vivo methods. In vitro methods have been suggested as a suitable screening tool for EDC monitoring due to low costs, reduced animal usage, the use of standard and basic equipment as well as the ability to screen a large number of samples with multiple endpoints. Of the available in vitro methods, the minced testes method has been suggested as the most suitable method for screening EDCs and for this reason has been employed in this study. The aim of this study was thus to employ a minced testes method to screen samples for male reproductive toxicity using cell viability and hormone production (testosterone and estradiol) as endpoints.The first objective of this study was to optimize an in vitro testicular cell culture assay by determining both optimal luteinizing hormone (LH)&nbsp / concentration and incubation time needed for testosterone production. Testicular cell cultures were prepared and cells were treated with varying concentrations of LH (10, 1, 0.1, 0.01 and 0 mu/ml) and incubated for 4 hours and 20 hours. Testosterone production was evaluated for each incubation period. Testosterone production was significantly increased for both incubation periods at all LH concentrations tested as compared to the control. For both incubation periods, there was no significant difference in testosterone production between the different LH concentrations tested. From the data obtained, the 4 hour incubation period as well as the LH concentration of 10 mu/ml were selected as optimal for the testicular cell culture assay. The second objective of this study was to determine the effect of Tulbaghia violacea Harv. on the male reproductive system. T. violacea is a plant species indigenous to southern Africa and is used locally as a herbal remedy/medicine to treat several ailments. Cells were treated with varying concentrations of the T. violacea ethanol extract (with/without LH-treatment) and incubated for 4 hours. Hormone production and cell viability were evaluated. The results obtained from this pilot in vitro study demonstrated that the ethanol extract of T.violacea has androgenic properties by significantly increasing LH-induced testosterone production in mouse testes with no significant change in cell viability. The third objective of this study was to assess the effect of Sutherlandia frutescens(L.) R.Br and Artemisia afra Jacq. Ex Willd. on the male reproductive system. S. frutescens and A. afra are also plant species indigenous to southern Africa and used locally as a herbal remedy/medicine to treat several ailments. Ethanol extracts of each plant was prepared and cells were treated with varying concentrations of each extract (0, 156.25, 312.5, 625, 1250,2500 and 5000 &mu / g/ml) with or without LH-treatment and incubated for 4 hours. Cytotoxicity by LDH measurement and hormone production (testosterone and estradiol) were endpoints that were evaluated. The results obtained showed that the ethanol extracts of both plants are not cytotoxic to testicular cells and that A. afra decreases testosterone production at high concentrations. The fourth and final objective of this study was to assess the acute effect of four heavy metals, namely manganese, copper, cadmium and magnesium on the male reproductive system. These heavy metals are used extensively in manufacturing and mining industries. Cells were treated with varying concentrations of each metal salt (200, 100, 50, 25, 12.5, and 6.25&nbsp / &mu / M) with or without LH-treatment and incubated for 4 hours. Endpoints evaluated included cell viability, testosterone and estradiol production. The results obtained showed that manganese, cadmium and copper are highly toxic to testicular cells in vitro and therefore may potentially cause reproductive toxicity.</p>