Replication of HIV-1 requires the assembly and release of mature and infectious viral particles. In order to accomplish this goal, HIV-1 has evolved multiple methods to interact with the host cell. HIV-1 recruits the host cell ESCRT machinery to facilitate the release of nascent viral particles from the host cell membrane. Recruitment of these cellular factors is dependent on the presence of short motifs in Gag referred to as Late-domains. Deletion or mutation of these domains results in substantial decrease in the release of infectious virions. However, previously published work has indicated that over-expression of the E3 ubiquitin ligase, NEDD4.2s is able to robustly rescue release of otherwise budding-defective HIV-1 particles. This rescue is specific to the NEDD4.2s isoform as related E3 ubiquitin ligases display no ability to rescue particle release. In addition, rescue of particle release is dependent on the presence of the partial C2 domain and a catalytically active HECT domain of NEDD4.2s. Here I provide evidence supporting the hypothesis that a partial C2 domain of NEDD4.2s constitutes a Gag interacting module capable of targeting the HECT domains of other E3 ubiquitin ligases to HIV-1 Gag. Also, by generating chimeras between HECT domains shown to form poly-ubiquitin chains linked through either K48 or K63 of ubiquitin, I demonstrate that the ability of NEDD4.2s to catalyze the formation of K63-polyubiquitin chains is required for its stimulation of HIV-1 L-domain mutant particle release. In addition, I present findings from on-going research into the role of the HIV-1 accessory protein Nef during viral replication using the culture T-cell line, MOLT3. My current findings indicate that downregulation of CD4 from the host cell membrane does not solely account for the dramatic dependence of HIV-1 replication on Nef expression in this system. In addition, I present evidence indicating that Nef proteins from diverse HIV-1 Groups and strains are capable of enhancing HIV-1 replication in this system. Analysis of a range of mutations in Nef known to impact interaction with cellular proteins suggest that the observed replication enhancement requires Nef targeting to the host cell membrane and may also require the ability to interact with select Src-kinases. Lastly, we find that the ability of Nef to enhance replication in this system is separate from any increase in viral particle infectivity, in agreement with current literature.

Thymic epithelial cells (TECs) are the main component of the thymic stroma, which supports T-cell proliferation and repertoire selection. Here, we demonstrate that Cbx4, a Polycomb protein that is highly expressed in the thymic epithelium, has an essential and non-redundant role in thymic organogenesis. Targeted disruption of Cbx4 causes severe hypoplasia of the fetal thymus as a result of reduced thymocyte proliferation. Cell-specific deletion of Cbx4 shows that the compromised thymopoiesis is rooted in a defective epithelial compartment. Cbx4-deficient TECs exhibit impaired proliferative capacity, and the limited thymic epithelial architecture quickly deteriorates in postnatal mutant mice, leading to an almost complete blockade of T-cell development shortly after birth and markedly reduced peripheral T-cell populations in adult mice. Furthermore, we show that Cbx4 physically interacts and functionally correlates with p63, which is a transcriptional regulator that is proposed to be important for the maintenance of the stemness of epithelial progenitors. Together, these data establish Cbx4 as a crucial regulator for the generation and maintenance of the thymic epithelium and, hence, for thymocyte development.

Várias condições podem estar associadas com a atrofia muscular, tais como inatividade, envelhecimento, septicemia, diabetes, câncer e uso de glicocorticoides. Todas estas condições levam a atrofia muscular através de mecanismos que incluem aumento da degradação proteica e/ou redução na síntese proteica, envolvendo pelo menos cinco sistemas: lisossomal, da calpaína, das caspases, metaloproteinases e o sistema ubiquitina-proteasoma (SUP). Glicocorticoides, tais como a dexametasona, acarretam atrofia muscular atuando em quase todos esses sistemas, com significante ativação do SUP e lisossomal, afetando uma importante via de trofismo muscular, a via do IGF-1/PI-3K/Akt/mTOR. Ácidos graxos poli-insaturados, como o Ômega-3 (ômega-3), têm sido utilizados de forma benéfica na atenuação da atrofia muscular que ocorre na septicemia e na caquexia associada ao câncer, no entanto, sua atuação sobre a atrofia muscular induzida por glicocorticoides ainda não foi avaliada. Objetivo: Avaliar se a suplementação do ácido graxo ômega-3 influenciaria o desenvolvimento da atrofia muscular induzida pela dexametasona em ratos. Metodologia: Vinte e quatro ratos Wistar suplementados e não suplementados com ômega-3 (40 dias) foram submetidos à administração de dexametasona subcutânea (5mg/Kg/dia) nos últimos 10 dias, formando assim quatro grupos: Controle (CT), dexametasona (DX), ômega3 e dexametasona+ômega3 (DX+ômega3). Através de estudo de comportamento motor, histológico, PCR em tempo real e Western Blotting foram avaliados respectivamente, o número de grandes e pequenos movimentos em campo aberto; a área de secção transversa das fibras musculares (fibras I, IIA e IIB); a expressão dos genes MyoD, Miogenina, MuRF-1, Atrogina-1 e Miostatina; e a expressão de proteínas relacionadas com a via do IGF-1/PI-3K/Akt/mTOR: Akt, GSK3beta, FOXO3a e mTOR, totais e fosforiladas. Resultados: A dexametasona produziu diminuição na quantidade de pequenos movimentos, atrofia muscular em fibras do tipo IIB e diminuição na expressão de P-Akt, P-GSK3ômega e P-FOXO3a/FOXO3a total. A suplementação com Ômega-3 não se mostrou eficaz na atenuação de tais alterações. Por outro lado, o Ômega-3 associado à dexametasona (grupo DX+3) induziu a maior expressão de atrogenes (MuRF-1 e atrogina-1) causando, adicionalmente, maior atrofia muscular em fibras do tipo I e IIA, além de menor expressão gênica de Miogenina. O Ômega-3 de forma isolada conduziu de forma significativa a maior expressão de Miostatina e MyoD, e de forma não significante elevou a expressão proteica de mTOR total e induziu menor ganho de peso corporal dos animais ao fim do estudo. Conclusão: A suplementação de Ômega-3 não foi capaz de atenuar as alterações comportamentais, atrofia muscular e perda de peso corporal causadas pela administração de dexametasona, levando por outro lado a maior atrofia das fibras musculares e aumento na expressão de atrogenes. Desta forma, este estudo sugere que suplementos alimentares usualmente considerados benéficos para saúde, tal como o ácido graxo Ômega-3, podem agir em interação com alguns medicamentos, como os glicocorticoides, potencializando seus efeitos colaterais / Many conditions can be related to muscle atrophy, such as inactivity, aging, sepsis, diabetes, cancer, as well as, glucocorticoid treatment. All these conditions lead to muscle atrophy through mechanisms that include increase of protein degradation and/or decrease of protein synthesis involving at least five systems: lysossomal, calpain, caspases, metaloproteinases and ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS). Glucocorticoids, such as dexamethasone cause muscle atrophy acting in almost all of these systems, with a significant UPS activation and affecting an important pathway related to muscular trophism, IGF-1/PI-3k/Akt/mTOR pathway. Poly-unsaturated fatty acids, such as Omega-3 (omega-3), have been used beneficially to attenuation of muscle atrophy that occur in sepsis and cachexia related to cancer, however, its action in the glucocorticoid-induced muscle atrophy, has never been evaluated. Objective: Assess whether the omega-3 supplementation would influence the development of dexamethasone-induced muscle atrophy in rats. Methods: Twenty four Wistar rats supplemented and non-supplemented with omega-3 (40 days) were submitted to dexamethasone administration (5mg/kg/day) during the last 10 days, thus establishing 4 groups: control (CT), dexamethasone (DX), omega-3 and dexamethasone+omega-3 (DX+ omega-3). The amount of large and small movements in open field; muscle fiber cross sectional areas (I, IIA and IIB); MyoD, Myogenin, MuRF-1, Atrogin-1 and Myostatin gene expression; and protein expression of Akt, GSK3omega, FOXO3a and mTOR, total and phosphorylated forms were assessed, respectively, by: motor behavior testing, histological reactions, Real-time PCR and Western Blotting analysis. Results: Dexamethasone administration induced significant decrease of small motor movements, atrophy in type IIB muscle fibers and decrease of P-Akt, P-GSK3omega and P-FOXO3a/total FOXO3a expression. Omega-3 supplementation was not able to attenuate these changes. Instead, omega-3 associated to dexamethasone (DX+ omega-3 group) additionally induced higher muscle atrophy in type I, IIA muscle fibers, and reduced expression of Myogenin. The isolated use of Omega-3 led to a significant higher expression of Myostatin and MyoD, and a non-significant increase of total mTOR protein expression and less body weight gain at end of study. Conclusion: Supplementation of omega-3 was not able to attenuate motor behavioral changes, muscle atrophy and loss of body weight caused by dexamethasone administration, leading on the other hand to higher muscle fibers atrophy and increase in atrogenes expression. Therefore, this study suggests that food supplements, usually considered benefic to the health, such as Omega-3 fatty acid, may interact with some medications, such as glucocorticoids, potentiating its side effects

Várias condições podem estar associadas com a atrofia muscular, tais como inatividade, envelhecimento, septicemia, diabetes, câncer e uso de glicocorticoides. Todas estas condições levam a atrofia muscular através de mecanismos que incluem aumento da degradação proteica e/ou redução na síntese proteica, envolvendo pelo menos cinco sistemas: lisossomal, da calpaína, das caspases, metaloproteinases e o sistema ubiquitina-proteasoma (SUP). Glicocorticoides, tais como a dexametasona, acarretam atrofia muscular atuando em quase todos esses sistemas, com significante ativação do SUP e lisossomal, afetando uma importante via de trofismo muscular, a via do IGF-1/PI-3K/Akt/mTOR. Ácidos graxos poli-insaturados, como o Ômega-3 (ômega-3), têm sido utilizados de forma benéfica na atenuação da atrofia muscular que ocorre na septicemia e na caquexia associada ao câncer, no entanto, sua atuação sobre a atrofia muscular induzida por glicocorticoides ainda não foi avaliada. Objetivo: Avaliar se a suplementação do ácido graxo ômega-3 influenciaria o desenvolvimento da atrofia muscular induzida pela dexametasona em ratos. Metodologia: Vinte e quatro ratos Wistar suplementados e não suplementados com ômega-3 (40 dias) foram submetidos à administração de dexametasona subcutânea (5mg/Kg/dia) nos últimos 10 dias, formando assim quatro grupos: Controle (CT), dexametasona (DX), ômega3 e dexametasona+ômega3 (DX+ômega3). Através de estudo de comportamento motor, histológico, PCR em tempo real e Western Blotting foram avaliados respectivamente, o número de grandes e pequenos movimentos em campo aberto; a área de secção transversa das fibras musculares (fibras I, IIA e IIB); a expressão dos genes MyoD, Miogenina, MuRF-1, Atrogina-1 e Miostatina; e a expressão de proteínas relacionadas com a via do IGF-1/PI-3K/Akt/mTOR: Akt, GSK3beta, FOXO3a e mTOR, totais e fosforiladas. Resultados: A dexametasona produziu diminuição na quantidade de pequenos movimentos, atrofia muscular em fibras do tipo IIB e diminuição na expressão de P-Akt, P-GSK3ômega e P-FOXO3a/FOXO3a total. A suplementação com Ômega-3 não se mostrou eficaz na atenuação de tais alterações. Por outro lado, o Ômega-3 associado à dexametasona (grupo DX+3) induziu a maior expressão de atrogenes (MuRF-1 e atrogina-1) causando, adicionalmente, maior atrofia muscular em fibras do tipo I e IIA, além de menor expressão gênica de Miogenina. O Ômega-3 de forma isolada conduziu de forma significativa a maior expressão de Miostatina e MyoD, e de forma não significante elevou a expressão proteica de mTOR total e induziu menor ganho de peso corporal dos animais ao fim do estudo. Conclusão: A suplementação de Ômega-3 não foi capaz de atenuar as alterações comportamentais, atrofia muscular e perda de peso corporal causadas pela administração de dexametasona, levando por outro lado a maior atrofia das fibras musculares e aumento na expressão de atrogenes. Desta forma, este estudo sugere que suplementos alimentares usualmente considerados benéficos para saúde, tal como o ácido graxo Ômega-3, podem agir em interação com alguns medicamentos, como os glicocorticoides, potencializando seus efeitos colaterais / Many conditions can be related to muscle atrophy, such as inactivity, aging, sepsis, diabetes, cancer, as well as, glucocorticoid treatment. All these conditions lead to muscle atrophy through mechanisms that include increase of protein degradation and/or decrease of protein synthesis involving at least five systems: lysossomal, calpain, caspases, metaloproteinases and ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS). Glucocorticoids, such as dexamethasone cause muscle atrophy acting in almost all of these systems, with a significant UPS activation and affecting an important pathway related to muscular trophism, IGF-1/PI-3k/Akt/mTOR pathway. Poly-unsaturated fatty acids, such as Omega-3 (omega-3), have been used beneficially to attenuation of muscle atrophy that occur in sepsis and cachexia related to cancer, however, its action in the glucocorticoid-induced muscle atrophy, has never been evaluated. Objective: Assess whether the omega-3 supplementation would influence the development of dexamethasone-induced muscle atrophy in rats. Methods: Twenty four Wistar rats supplemented and non-supplemented with omega-3 (40 days) were submitted to dexamethasone administration (5mg/kg/day) during the last 10 days, thus establishing 4 groups: control (CT), dexamethasone (DX), omega-3 and dexamethasone+omega-3 (DX+ omega-3). The amount of large and small movements in open field; muscle fiber cross sectional areas (I, IIA and IIB); MyoD, Myogenin, MuRF-1, Atrogin-1 and Myostatin gene expression; and protein expression of Akt, GSK3omega, FOXO3a and mTOR, total and phosphorylated forms were assessed, respectively, by: motor behavior testing, histological reactions, Real-time PCR and Western Blotting analysis. Results: Dexamethasone administration induced significant decrease of small motor movements, atrophy in type IIB muscle fibers and decrease of P-Akt, P-GSK3omega and P-FOXO3a/total FOXO3a expression. Omega-3 supplementation was not able to attenuate these changes. Instead, omega-3 associated to dexamethasone (DX+ omega-3 group) additionally induced higher muscle atrophy in type I, IIA muscle fibers, and reduced expression of Myogenin. The isolated use of Omega-3 led to a significant higher expression of Myostatin and MyoD, and a non-significant increase of total mTOR protein expression and less body weight gain at end of study. Conclusion: Supplementation of omega-3 was not able to attenuate motor behavioral changes, muscle atrophy and loss of body weight caused by dexamethasone administration, leading on the other hand to higher muscle fibers atrophy and increase in atrogenes expression. Therefore, this study suggests that food supplements, usually considered benefic to the health, such as Omega-3 fatty acid, may interact with some medications, such as glucocorticoids, potentiating its side effects