<p>Unreinforced masonry (URM) constitutes a large part of current building inventory worldwide, and this type of construction also represents a major seismic risk, especially in developing countries where URM is widely used. During an earthquake, URM walls are unable to dissipate seismic forces without experiencing considerable damage or collapse. Due to their lack of ductility, URM walls fail in a brittle manner, which can leads to damaged face shells becoming falling debris and a major source of hazard. The aim of this study is to investigate the applicability of using polyurethane foams as an inexpensive reinforcement technique for both retrofitting existing and new URM construction.</p> <p>Experimental testing of the reinforced masonry walls showed a large increase in the resiliency of the wall, with an increase in the out-of-plane capacity of up to 34 times over the URM specimen, and with the addition of rope reinforcement an increase in the out-of-plane capacity of up to 90 times the URM specimen was achieved. This system allows walls to experience a considerable amount of deflection before ultimate failure is reached. Within certain limits, the polyurethane foam is able to demonstrate elastic characteristics. By developing foam with higher densities, higher compressive, tensile, flexural and shear strengths can be reached. This type of reinforcement allows for less damage during low seismic events, and through the greater resiliency of the system, walls are able to remain stable and exhibit post-peak strength during a stronger seismic event. In its ultimate limit state, the wall will fail, however collapse is typically prevented – reducing the amount of hazardous debris and saving the lives of the buildings occupants.</p> / Master of Applied Science (MASc)

Résumé : Cette juxtaposition de matériaux solides -blocs, pierres ou briques,...- liés ou non entre eux que nous appelons maçonnerie ne se comporte pas très bien vis-à-vis des forces latérales, surtout si elle n’a pas été réalisée suivant les normes parasismiques ou de façon adéquate. Cette vulnérabilité (glissement, cisaillement, déchirure en flexion, ou tout autre) vient souvent du fait même de ce processus d’empilement, des problèmes d’interaction avec le reste de la structure et aussi à cause des caractéristiques mécaniques peu fiables de certains éléments utilisés. Malgré cette défaillance structurale, la maçonnerie est encore utilisée aujourd’hui grâce à son côté traditionnel, sa facilité de mise en œuvre et son coût d’utilisation peu élevé. Depuis quelques années, la maçonnerie s’est enrichie de documents qui ont été publiés par divers chercheurs dans le but d’une meilleure compréhension des caractéristiques mécaniques des éléments et aussi, et surtout, des mécanismes de rupture des murs de maçonnerie pour une meilleure réponse face aux sollicitations sismiques. Beaucoup de programmes expérimentaux ont alors été effectués et tant d’autres sont encore nécessaires. Et c’est dans ce contexte que cette recherche a été conduite. Elle présentera, entre autres, le comportement sous charges latérales d’un mur en maçonnerie armée entièrement rempli de coulis. Ce projet de recherche fait partie d’un programme plus large visant à une meilleure connaissance du comportement sismique de la maçonnerie pour une amélioration des techniques de construction et de réparation des ouvrages en maçonnerie. / Abstract : This juxtaposition of solid materials -blocks, stones or bricks, ...- linked or not together called masonry does not behave very well towards lateral forces, especially if it has not been carried out according to seismic standards or enough adequate. This vulnerability - sliding, shearing, bending tear, or otherwise- comes often precisely because of this process of stacking, problems of interaction with the rest of the structure and also because of unreliable mechanical characteristics of used items. Despite this structural failure, masonry is still used today because of its traditional side, ease of implementation and low cost of use. In recent years, masonry was enriched with documents published by various researchers to a better understanding of the mechanical properties elements and also, above all, of the failure mechanisms masonry walls for a better response to seismic loading. Many experiences were then performed and many others are still necessary ; and therefore the Canada has for some time been involved in this adventure. And it is in this direction that goes this document. It presents, among others, the behavior under lateral loads of a reinforced masonry wall completely filled with grout. This research project is part of a broader program to a better understanding of the seismic behavior of masonry for an improvement of design and repair techniques of masonry.

There are many advantages of masonry construction like widespread geographic availability in many forms, colors and textures, comparative cheapness, fire resistance, thermal and sound insulation, durability, etc. For such reasons, it is still a commonly used type of residential construction in rural and even in urban regions. Unfortunately, its behavior especially under the effect of earthquake ground motions has not been identified clearly because of its complex material nature. Hence, the masonry buildings with structural deficiencies belong to the most vulnerable class of structures which have experienced heavy damage or even total collapse in previous earthquakes, especially in developing countries like Turkey. This necessitates new contemporary methods for designing safer masonry structures or assessing their performance. Considering all these facts, this study aims at the generation of a new performance-based technique for unreinforced brick masonry structures. First, simplified formulations are recommended to estimate idealized capacity curve parameters of masonry components (piers) by using the finite element analysis results of ANSYS and regression analysis through SPSS software. Local limit states for individual masonry piers are also obtained. Then, by combining the component behavior, lateral capacity curve of the masonry building is constructed together with the global limit states. The final step is to define seismic demand of the design earthquake from the building through TEC2007 method. By using this simple technique, a large population of masonry buildings can be examined in a relatively short period of time noting that the performance estimations are quite reliable since they are based on sophisticated finite element analysis results.

Thesis (MEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: South Africa has some regions which are susceptible to moderate seismic activity. A peak ground acceleration of between 0.1g and 0.15g can be expected in the southern parts of the Western Cape. Unreinforced Masonry (URM) is commonly used as a construction material for 2 to 4 storey buildings in underprivileged areas in and around Cape Town. URM is typically regarded as the material most vulnerable to damage when subjected to earthquake excitation. In this study, a three-storey URM building was analysed by applying seven earthquake time-histories, that can be expected to occur in South Africa, to a finite element model. Experimental data was used to calibrate the in- and out-of-plane stiffness of the URM. A linear modal dynamic analysis and non-linear implicit dynamic analysis were performed. The results indicated that tensile cracking of the in-plane piers was the dominant failure mode. The building relied on the postcracking capacity to resist the 0.15g magnitude earthquake. It is concluded that URM buildings of this type are at risk of failure especially if sufficient ductility is not provided. The results also showed that connection failure must be investigated further. Construction and material quality will have a large effect on the ability of typical URM buildings to withstand moderate magnitude earthquakes in South Africa. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Sekere gebiede in Suid-Afrika het ’n risiko van matige seismiese aktiwiteit. Aardbewings met maksimum grondversnellings van tussen 0.1g en 0.15g kan in die suidelike gedeeltes van die Wes- Kaap voorkom. Twee- tot vier-verdieping onbewapende messelwerkgeboue kom algemeen voor in die lae sosio-ekonomiese gebiede van Kaapstad. Oor die algemeen word onbewapende messelwerkgeboue as die gebou-tipe beskou wat die maklikste skade opdoen tydens aardbewings. In hierdie studie is sewe aardbewings, wat tipies in Kaapstad verwag kan word, identifiseer en gebruik om ’n tipiese drie-verdieping onbewapende messelwerkgebou te analiseer. Eksperimentele data is gebruik om die materiaaleienskappe in die in-vlak asook uit-vlak rigtings te kalibreer. Beide ’n liniêre modale en nie-liniˆere implisiete dinamiese analises is uitgevoer. Die resultate dui daarop dat die dominante falingsmode die kraak van in-vlak messelwerk-tussenkolomme is. Die gebou moes sy plastiese kapasiteit benut om die 0.15g aardbewing te kan weerstaan. Die gevolgtrekking is dat dié tipe onbewapende messelwerkgeboue ’n risiko inhou om mee te gee, veral as genoegsame vervormbaarheid nie verskaf word nie. Die resultate toon ook dat konneksie-faling verder ondersoek moet word. Kwaliteit van vakmanskap en van materiaal het ’n groot invoed op die vermoë van onbewapende messelwerkgeboue om aardbewings van matige intensiteit in Suid-Afrika te weerstaan.

Although performance based assessment procedures are mainly developed for reinforced concrete and steel buildings, URM buildings occupy significant portion of building stock in earthquake prone areas of the world as well as in Turkey. Variability of material properties, non-engineered nature of the construction and difficulties in structural analysis of perforated walls make analysis of URM buildings challenging. Despite sophisticated finite element models satisfy the modeling requirements, extensive experimental data for definition of material behavior and high computational resources are needed. Recently, nonlinear equivalent frame models which are developed assigning lumped plastic hinges to isotropic and homogenous equivalent frame elements are used for nonlinear modeling of URM buildings. The work presented in this thesis is about performance assessment of unreinforced brick masonry buildings in Turkey through nonlinear equivalent frame modeling technique. Reliability of the proposed model is tested with a reversed cyclic experiment conducted on a full scale, two-story URM building at the University of Pavia and a dynamic shake table test on a half scale, two story URM building at the Ismes Laboratory at Bergamo. Good agreement between numerical and experimental results is found. Finally, pushover and nonlinear time history analyses of three unreinforced brick masonry buildings which are damaged in 1995 earthquake of Dinar is conducted using the proposed three dimensional nonlinear equivalent model. After displacement demands of the buildings are determined utilizing Turkish Earthquake Code 2007, performance based assessment of the buildings are done.

Masters Research - Master of Philospohy (MPhil) / It has been shown that masonry material properties, in particular, unit flexural bond strength (ft), vary significantly throughout masonry structures, despite the fact that often only one type of brick and mortar are used. Unit flexural bond strength was previously identified as one of the most important material parameters contributing to the strength of clay brick unreinforced masonry (URM) walls in flexure. It was the objectives of this research, in the context of clay brick URM walls subject to vertical bending, to examine how unit flexural bond strength varied spatially in a clay brick URM wall, determine a best fit probability distribution function which can describe expected variability in unit flexural bond strength and determine how this variability and other factors affect wall behaviour and failure load using 3D non-linear finite element analysis (FEA). It was hoped that modelling a full sized clay brick URM wall subject to vertical bending using a 3D non-linear FEA model would more accurately predict wall failure load (compared to current analytical methods) and allow the examination of crack pattern development as the wall progresses to failure upon being laterally loaded. The first part of the research project was to conduct an experimental program to examine unit-to-unit spatial strength correlation within six full sized clay brick URM walls and to characterise a unit flexural bond strength probability distribution. It was observed that although weak correlation in unit flexural bond strength exists in some courses and between courses, these locations were difficult to predict and didn����t follow any particular pattern relating to for example, mortar batch. Therefore, although somewhat counter-intuitive, the results indicate that statistically significant correlation between adjacent unit flexural bond strengths is not likely to be observed. It was also observed that clay brick wall unit flexural bond strengths obtained for all of the walls tested best fit a truncated Normal probability distribution. Strength of the brick/mortar interface appeared to be governed by factors relating to workmanship (and therefore mortar quality and moisture content), weather (which can affect material characteristics like brick suction rate) and inherent material variability. It would appear that brick suction rate can significantly affect the overall strength of a URM wall. v Stochastic analysis was conducted for walls with and without uncorrelated spatial variability in unit flexural bond strength and associated tensile fracture energy (GfI ). It was found that the TNO DIANA 9.2 FEA package could be used to implement spatial variability of various material parameters and reasonably accurately model failure of clay brick URM walls in vertical bending. From the non-linear FEA model development stage, it was observed that because the brick/mortar bond has significantly more strength capacity in compression, it appears that the lateral load resistance of the wall comes from a combination of the ability of the brick/mortar bond to tensile soften while providing significant compressive resistance at the compressive edge. It was found for a spatial stochastic analysis with spatial variability in bond strength (referred to from now on as a spatial stochastic analysis), with COVs of 0.1, 0.3 and 0.5, that COV of wall failure loads were relatively small, being 0.02, 0.04 and 0.06 respectively. For the non-spatially varying stochastic analysis with fully correlated bond strength (now referred to as non-spatial stochastic analysis), with COVs of 0.1, 0.3 and 0.5, COV of wall failure loads were 0.07, 0.20 and 0.32 respectively. For the spatial stochastic analysis, it was found that with a bond strength COV increase from 0.1 to 0.5 the mean wall failure load dropped from 2.25 kPa to 2.0 kPa (an 11% reduction). Despite the relatively small drop in magnitude of the mean wall failure load with increase in bond strength COV, the mean wall failure loads were statistically different to one another. For the non-spatial stochastic analysis, mean failure load stayed relatively constant at 2.24-2.25 kPa. These results could be explained by examining the 3D wall progression to failure. For walls with spatial variability in bond strength, it is expected that wall failure load COVs would be smaller because those walls would consistently be composed of smaller valued bond strengths which would consistently contribute to weakness in the wall. For the non-spatial wall simulations, this effect would not occur as failure load is determined by one uniform weak or strong bond strength. It was proposed that failure of a clay brick URM wall is not governed by one course only cracking, but rather, instability in the wall is governed by several courses in the vicinity of locations of large bending moment. It was shown that various current stochastic approximations which employ a unit failure hypotheses in combination with a linear/elastic approximation for first cracking load all underestimated wall capacity significantly. The reason for this is suggested as being vi because all hypotheses only assume failure is governed by one course and linear/elastic theory only considers the tensile capacity of a joint and neglects strength capacity available as a result of joint tension softening and the resistance to failure provided by compressive strength on the compression side of the wall. The hypotheses also don’t take into consideration factors which affect overall wall bond strength mean which result from influences such as workmanship, weather and material variability factors, such as (for example), variation in brick suction rate due to weather conditions which can make the overall strength of the wall stronger or weaker. Based upon a comparison in wall failure load COV for the spatial and non-spatial stochastic wall analysis results, a more realistic approach for future modelling attempts of spatial variability in masonry material properties is suggested. This would address the issue of external factors such as workmanship and weather on the overall strength of the wall, as well as the inherent bond strength variability due to material variability. For walls with spatial variability in bond strength, upon examination of numerous wall simulation results, several crack patterns were witnessed and are discussed.

La France Métropolitaine est composée de régions à sismicité modérée mais néanmoins vulnérables aux tremblements de terre. En effet, 85% des bâtiments existants ont été construits avant l’apparition des règles de construction parasismique. Pour évaluer la vulnérabilité sismique de ces structures, il existe différentes méthodes à grande échelle telles que Hazus ou Risk-UE, non adaptées à l’échelle d’un bâtiment. Deux typologies de structures ont été étudiées dans ce travail : les structures récentes en béton armé représentatives des grands bâtiments stratégiques, et les structures en maçonnerie non renforcée, représentatives des centres villes historiques. Compte-tenu de la sismicité modérée, les structures récentes en béton armé ont un comportement linéaire élastique. Dans ce cadre, l’instrumentation d’un bâtiment, tel que la Tour de l’Ophite, est essentielle car elle permet de déterminer les vibrations ambiantes d’une structure et d’en extraire les paramètres modaux (fréquences propres, amortissements et déformées modales) qui incluent naturellement des informations sur la qualité des matériaux utilisés, leur vieillissement, leur endommagement, etc. De plus, un outil, basé sur la méthode stochastique par sous-espaces à l’aide des matrices de covariance (SSI-COV), a été développé afin de détecter au mieux les modes propres très proches (modes doubles), lors du traitement des données issues de l’instrumentation de la Tour de l’Ophite. Un modèle numérique par Eléments Finis est également proposé afin de prédire, dans le domaine linéaire, les déplacements de la Tour de l’Ophite soumise à un séisme identique à celui des Abruzzes en Italie en 2009. Pour les structures en maçonnerie non renforcée, un modèle de comportement non-linéaire des matériaux, avec une approche de type endommagement fragile, a été développé et utilisé pour la simulation numérique du comportement ductile des panneaux, remplaçant ainsi la mise en œuvre d’essais expérimentaux lourds et coûteux. A partir des travaux précédents, une méthodologie analytique d’évaluation de la vulnérabilité sismique des bâtiments existants, validée par comparaison avec le code numérique TreMuRi, est proposée et appliquée à un bâtiment. Par exemple, la généricité de notre méthodologie a permis de mener une investigation sur un matériau local, les murs en galets. / France is a country composed of moderate seismic hazard regions however vulnerable to earthquakes. 85% of existing buildings have been built before the application of paraseismic codes. Several current large-scale seismic vulnerability assessment methods are used, such as Hazus or Risk-UE, but they are inappropriate for specific building analysis. Two structure types have been evaluated in this thesis; the recent reinforced concrete structures for high strategic buildings, and the unreinforced masonry structures, for historical city centres. In view of the moderate seismic risk, recent reinforced concrete structures have an elastic behaviour. In this context, the instrumentation of a building, such as the Ophite Tower, is essential as it determines the ambient vibrations of a structure and extracts modal parameters (natural frequencies, modal shapes and damping), which naturally include information such as quality of materials, ageing, damage, etc. Moreover, as a tool based on the Covariance driven Stochastic Subspace Identification method (SSI-COV), it was developed in order to improve the detection of very close natural modes (double modes), during data processing from the instrumentation of Ophite Tower. A Finite Element numerical model (linear) was also proposed to predict the displacements of Ophite Tower under a seismic motion similar to Abruzzes earthquake (Italy, 2009). For unreinforced masonry structures, a model for nonlinear behaviour of materials with a brittle cracking approach has been developed. This is used for the numerical simulation of the ductile behaviour of panels and replaces the expensive experimental tests. From previous works, an analytical seismic vulnerability assessment method of existing buildings, validated par comparison with TreMuRi code, was proposed and applied to a building. For example, the genericity of this methodology has led to an investigation of a local material (pier walls).

Steel frame construction with unreinforced masonry infill walls is a common system found in high-rise structures built in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Recorded performance of this dual system during seismic events shows that the structures are able to resist a high level of lateral loads without collapse, primarily because a majority of damage is confined to the infill walls instead of the gravity carrying frame. To better understand expected performance of this structural system in different seismic risk regions, a prototypical building was analyzed using modal and nonlinear static procedures based on currently accepted evaluation guidelines. Nonlinear results from the computer model were compared with calculated target displacements for seventeen cities likely to have steel frame construction with unreinforced masonry infill in order to determine expected damage levels at varying levels of seismic risk. It was concluded that the structural system studied could experience damage in all seismic risk regions, including post-yield damage of the structure, although in low risk regions that damage is confined entirely to the infill walls. Practicing structural engineers should be aware that in all seismic risk zones existing steel frame buildings with unreinforced masonry infill, while able to resist a high magnitude of displacement without complete structural failure, will require additional lateral support under currently accepted rehabilitation guidelines.

A large amount of low-rise unreinforced masonry structures (URM) can be foundin Groningen, the Netherlands. More and more induced earthquakes with shortduration have been detected in this region due to gas exploitation. Local unreinforcedmasonry (URM) buildings were initially not designed for withstanding seismicactions, so that unexpected damage may occur due to their vulnerability, raising insecurityamong residents. Existing low-rise masonry buildings in Groningen can bedivided into different categories based on their characteristics. Two types of residentialmasonry buildings that fulfil the prerequisites for performing non-linear seismicassessment are chosen to be studied in this thesis project, including the terracedhouse and the detached house.The seismic assessment of structures requires the use of both a discretization methodand a seismic assessment method. The discretization method is used to translate themechanical model into a finite element model used for the numerical analysis. Severalmethods have previously shown to be applicable for seismic assessment, but thiswork investigates the implications of using a continuum model (CM) and an equivalentframe model (EFM) approach to discretization in the general-purpose finiteelement package described in DIANA-FEA-BV (2017). The continuum model approachadopted was in a previous work by Schreppers et al. (2017) validated againstexperimental results and is as such deemed representative of the physical behaviourof the mechanical models investigated. An equivalent frame model approach to beused with DIANA is proposed in the work by Nobel (2017). The continuum modelapproach uses continuum elements with a constitutive model developed for the seismicassessment of masonry structures. This constitutive model captures both shearand flexural failure mechanisms. The equivalent frame model approach uses a combinationof numerically integrated beam elements and nodal interfaces, each witha distinct constitutive model, thus decoupling the description of the flexural andshear behaviour. This approach aims to capture the macro-behaviour at the structurallevel. The applicability of the proposed equivalent frame model approach isevaluated by how well it replicates the validated continuum model approach results.The two discretization methods described are evaluated using two types of seismicassessment methods. The first seismic assessment method used consists of first performinga quasi-static non-linear pushover analysis (NLPO) on the model. Thisresults in the pushover curve, which describes the global behaviour of the modelunder an equivalent lateral load based on the fundamental mode shape of the structure.The pushover curve is then used with the N2-method described in EN1998-1iii(2004) to assess at which peak ground acceleration (PGA) that the model reachesthe near-collapse (NC) limit state. The second seismic assessment method consistsof performing dynamic non-linear time-history analyses (NLTH). This method usesrecorded accelerograms to impose the inertial forces. The PGA for the accelerogramwhere the near-collapse limit state is reached is compared to the PGA fromthe use of the N2-method. The applicability of the pushover analysis in conjunctionwith the N2-method is evaluated by how well it replicates the PGA found from thetime-history analyses and by how well it replicates local failure mechanisms.Therefore, the main objectives of this project can be described by the following twoquestions:i. To what extent can the equivalent frame method be applicable as a properdiscretization method for pushover analyses and time-history analyses oflow-rise unreinforced masonry residential buildings in the Groningen region?ii. To what extent can the non-linear pushover method be adopted toassess the seismic behaviour of low-rise unreinforced masonry residentialbuildings in the Groningen region?The applicability of the equivalent frame model showed to vary. For describing localfailure mechanisms its applicability is poor. Further work on connecting the edgepiers to transverse walls is needed. For seismic assessment using the N2-method theapplicability of the equivalent frame model approach is sensible. The conservativedisplacement capacity counteracts the fact that it is worse at describing local unloading,which produced a larger initial equivalent stiffness of the bi-linear curvesin comparison to the continuum model. For seismic assessment using the timehistorysignals, its applicability is possible. While it could show different behaviourin terms of displacement and damping forces, it still showed a similar PGA at thenear-collapse limit state for the cases at hand.The seismic assessment of the terraced and detached houses by the N2-method issimilar to the seismic prediction by applying time-history analyses. However, thereare still some variations in the initial stiffness, force capacity and displacement capacitybetween these two assessment methods due to the assumptions and limitationsin this study. Overall, considering the pros and cons of the quasi-static pushovermethod, it is deemed applicable during the seismic assessment of the unreinforcedmasonry structures in the Groningen area.

A large amount of low-rise unreinforced masonry structures (URM) can be found in Groningen, the Netherlands. More and more induced earthquakes with short duration have been detected in this region due to gas exploitation. Local unreinforced masonry (URM) buildings were initially not designed for withstanding seismic actions, so that unexpected damage may occur due to their vulnerability, raising insecurity among residents. Existing low-rise masonry buildings in Groningen can be divided into different categories based on their characteristics. Two types of residential masonry buildings that fulfil the prerequisites for performing non-linear seismic assessment are chosen to be studied in this thesis project, including the terraced house and the detached house. The seismic assessment of structures requires the use of both a discretization method and a seismic assessment method. The discretization method is used to translate the mechanical model into a finite element model used for the numerical analysis. Several methods have previously shown to be applicable for seismic assessment, but this work investigates the implications of using a continuum model (CM) and an equivalent frame model (EFM) approach to discretization in the general-purpose finite element package described in n DIANA-FEA-BV (2017). The continuum model approach adopted was in a previous work by Schreppers et al. (2017) validated against experimental results and is as such deemed representative of the physical behaviour of the mechanical models investigated. An equivalent frame model approach to be used with DIANA is proposed in the work by Nobel (2017). The continuum model approach uses continuum elements with a constitutive model developed for the seismic assessment of masonry structures. This constitutive model captures both shear and flexural failure mechanisms. The equivalent frame model approach uses a combination of numerically integrated beam elements and nodal interfaces, each with a distinct constitutive model, thus decoupling the description of the flexural and shear behaviour. This approach aims to capture the macro-behaviour at the structural level. The applicability of the proposed equivalent frame model approach is evaluated by how well it replicates the validated continuum model approach results. The two discretization methods described are evaluated using two types of seismic assessment methods. The first seismic assessment method used consists of first performing a quasi-static non-linear pushover analysis (NLPO) on the model. This results in the pushover curve, which describes the global behaviour of the model under an equivalent lateral load based on the fundamental mode shape of the structure. The pushover curve is then used with the N2-method described in EN1998-1 (2004) to assess at which peak ground acceleration (PGA) that the model reaches the near-collapse (NC) limit state. The second seismic assessment method consists of performing dynamic non-linear time-history analyses (NLTH). This method uses recorded accelerograms to impose the inertial forces. The PGA for the accelerogram where the near-collapse limit state is reached is compared to the PGA from the use of the N2-method. The applicability of the pushover analysis in conjunction with the N2-method is evaluated by how well it replicates the PGA found from the time-history analyses and by how well it replicates local failure mechanisms.  Therefore, the main objectives of this project can be described by the following two questions: i. To what extent can the equivalent frame method be applicable as a proper discretization method for pushover analyses and time-history analyses of low-rise unreinforced masonry residential buildings in the Groningen region? ii. To what extent can the non-linear pushover method be adopted to assess the seismic behaviour of low-rise unreinforced masonry residential buildings in the Groningen region? The applicability of the equivalent frame model showed to vary. For describing local failure mechanisms its applicability is poor. Further work on connecting the edge piers to transverse walls is needed. For seismic assessment using the N2-method the applicability of the equivalent frame model approach is sensible. The conservative displacement capacity counteracts the fact that it is worse at describing local unloading, which produced a larger initial equivalent stiffness of the bi-linear curves in comparison to the continuum model. For seismic assessment using the time-history signals, its applicability is possible. While it could show different behaviour in terms of displacement and damping forces, it still showed a similar PGA at the near-collapse limit state for the cases at hand. The seismic assessment of the terraced and detached houses by the N2-method is similar to the seismic prediction by applying time-history analyses. However, there are still some variations in the initial stiffness, force capacity and displacement capacity between these two assessment methods due to the assumptions and limitations in this study. Overall, considering the pros and cons of the quasi-static pushover method, it is deemed applicable during the seismic assessment of the unreinforced masonry structures in the Groningen area. / En stor mängd låga oarmerade murverksbyggnader finns i Groningen, Nederländerna. Allt fler jordbävningar med kort varaktighet har uppmätts i regionen pågrund utav gasproduktion. I området förekommer oarmerade murverksbyggnader som initialt inte var dimensionerade för jordbävningslaster, vilket har resulterat i oönskade skador samt osäkerhet för invånarna. Förekommande låga murverksbyggnader i Groningen kan fördelas i olika grupper beroende på deras egenskaper. Två typer av murverksbyggnader utformade som bostäder uppföljer kraven för att utföra olinjär jordbävningsanalys och har i detta projekt studerats. Typerna som studerats är radhus samt fristående hus. Jordbävningsnalys av byggnader kräver användningen av en diskretiseringsmetod samt en utvärderingsmetod. Diskretiseringsmetoden används för att översätta den mekaniska modellen till en finita elementmodell för numerisk analys. Flera metoder har tidigare visat sig vara applicerbara för utvärdering under jordbävningslaster, men det här projektet studerar konsekvensen från användningen av en kontinuumelement modell (CM) samt en ekvivalent rammodel (EFM) för diskretisering i det generella finita elementpaketet beskrivet i DIANA-FEA-BV (2017). Metoden som använts för att skapa kontinuumelement modeller vart i ett tidigare projekt av Schreppers et al. (2017) validerat mot experimentella resultat och anses därför  representera det fysiska beteendet hos de mekaniska modellerna. Ett förslag för hur ekvivalenta rammodeller ska uppföras i DIANA ges i arbetet av Nobel (2017). Metoden för en kontinuumelement modell använder en konstitutiv lag som utvecklats för utvärderingen av murverksbyggnader under jordbävningslaster. Denna konstitutiva modell fångar skjuv- samt böjbrottmekanismer. Metoden för en ekvivalent rammodell använder numeriskt integrerade balkelement samt nodelement, där båda elementtyper använder en distinkt konstitutiv modell vilket gör att skjuv- samt böjbeteende hanteras individuellt. Den här metoden har som mål att fånga makro-beteendet av elementen. Applicerbarheten av den föreslagna metoden för ekvivalenta rammodeller är utvärderat via hur väl den replikerar resultaten från en kontinuumelement modell. De två diskretiseringsmetoderna jämförs via två metoder för utvärdering under jordbävningslaster. Den första utvärderingsmetoden består av att först utföra en kvasi-statisk olinjär stjälpningsanalys (NLPO) på modellen. Detta leder till stjälpningskurvan, vilket beskriver den globala responsen av modellen under en ekvivalent horisontal last som baserats på första fundamentala moden av bärverket. Stjälpningkurvan används sedan med N2-metoden som beskrivs i EN1998-1 (2004) för att utvärdera vid vilken maximal markacceleration (PGA) som modellen når nära-kollapsgränstilsståndet (NC). Den andra utvärderingsmetoden består av att utföra dynamiska samt olinjära tids-historikanalyser (NLTH). För att göra detta så används accelerogram för att applicera den dynamiska lasten. Den maximala markaccelerationen för signalen där tids-historikanalysen når nära-kollapsgränstilsståndet är jämfört mot den maximala markaccelerationen som fås när N2-metoden används. Applicerbarheten för stjälpningsanalysen tillsammans med N2-metoden utvärderas via hur väl den replikerar resultatet av den maximala markaccelerationen som erhållsfrån tids-historikanalyserna, samt via hur väl metoden replikerar lokala brottmoder. Baserat på detta så kan målen med detta project sammanfattas via dessa två frågeställningar: i. Till vilken grad kan den föreslagna metoden för ekvivalenta rammodeller användas för utvärdering under jordbävningslaster när stälpningsanalyser, samt tids-historikanalyser, utförs på låga och oarmerade murverksbyggnader utformade som bostadsrätter i Groningen? ii. Till vilken grad kan olinjär stjälpningsanalys användas för utvärdering under jordbävningslaster på låga och oarmerade murverksbyggnader utformade som bostadsrätter i Groningen? Applicerbarheten av metoden för ekvivalenta rammodeller visade sig variera. För att beskriva lokala brottmoder så är applicerbarheten låg. Fortsatt arbete som undersöker hur pelarelementen ska kopplas mot de tvärgående väggarna bör utföras. För utvärdering via användandet av N2-metoden så visade det sig att applicerbarheten är rimlig. Den konservativa deformationskapaciteten motverkar det faktum att metoden för ekvivalenta rammodeller är sämre på att påvisa lokal avlastning, vilket i sin tur resulterade i en större ekvivalent initial styvhet för de bi-linjära kurvorna i jämförelse mot metoden för kontinuumelement modeller. För utvärdering när tids-historikanalyser användes så visade applicerbarheten vara rimlig. Samtidigt som det kunde uppstå skillnader i beteende när det kom till deformation samt dämpning, så visade det sig att metoderna fortfarande uppvisade en liknande maximal markacceleration vid nära-kollapsgränstilsståndet för bärverken i fråga. Utvärderingen under jordbävningslast för modellerna när N2-metoden användes visade liknande resultat som när tids-historikanalyserna utfördes. Det förekom dock skillnader i den initiala styvheten, i skjuvkraftskapaciteten och i deformationskapciteten mellan utvärderingsmetoderna från gjorda antaganden samt begränsningar hos arbetet. Som en slutsats när för- samt nackdelar värderas så visade det sig att stjälpningsmetoden är en rimlig utvärderinsgmetod för oarmerade murverksbyggnader i Groningen.