La questione energetica ha assunto, negli ultimi anni, un ruolo centrale nel dibattito mondiale in relazione a quattro fattori principali: la non riproducibilità delle risorse naturali, l’aumento esponenziale dei consumi, gli interessi economici e la salvaguardia dell'equilibrio ambientale e climatico del nostro Pianeta. E’ necessario, dunque, cambiare il modello di produzione e consumo dell’energia soprattutto nelle città, dove si ha la massima concentrazione dei consumi energetici. Per queste ragioni, il ricorso alle Fonti Energetiche Rinnovabili (FER) si configura ormai come una misura necessaria, opportuna ed urgente anche nella pianificazione urbanistica. Per migliorare la prestazione energetica complessiva del sistema città bisogna implementare politiche di governo delle trasformazioni che escano da una logica operativa “edificio-centrica” e ricomprendano, oltre al singolo manufatto, le aggregazioni di manufatti e le loro relazioni/ interazioni in termini di input e output materico-energetiche. La sostituzione generalizzata del patrimonio edilizio esistente con nuovi edifici iper-tecnologici, è improponibile. In che modo quindi, è possibile ridefinire la normativa e la prassi urbanistica per generare tessuti edilizi energeticamente efficienti? La presente ricerca propone l’integrazione tra la nascente pianificazione energetica del territorio e le più consolidate norme urbanistiche, nella generazione di tessuti urbani “energy saving” che aggiungano alle prestazioni energetico-ambientali dei singoli manufatti quelle del contesto, in un bilancio energetico complessivo. Questo studio, dopo aver descritto e confrontato le principali FER oggi disponibili, suggerisce una metodologia per una valutazione preliminare del mix di tecnologie e di FER più adatto per ciascun sito configurato come “distretto energetico”. I risultati di tale processo forniscono gli elementi basilari per predisporre le azioni necessarie all’integrazione della materia energetica nei Piani Urbanistici attraverso l’applicazione dei principi della perequazione nella definizione di requisiti prestazionali alla scala insediativa, indispensabili per un corretto passaggio alla progettazione degli “oggetti” e dei “sistemi” urbani. / The energy issue has recently become crucial in the global debate in relation to four main factors: the non-reproducibility of natural resources, the exponential increase in consumption, the economic interests and the preservation of the environment and climate of our Planet. It is therefore necessary to change the pattern of production and consumption of energy, especially in cities where the highest consumption of energy is concentrated. For these reasons, the use of Renewable Energy Sources (RES) is now beginning to look as essential, appropriate and urgent even in urban planning. To improve the overall energy performance of the city system the government policies should come out of a "building-centric" operative logic covering, in addition to individual estates, the aggregations of buildings and their relationships/interactions in terms of input and output of matter-energy. The widespread replacement of existing estates with new hyper-technology buildings, is unlikely. So how, can we redefine rules and practices to create energetically efficient urban fabric building? This research proposes the integration of the emerging territorial energy planning and the more established zoning in the generation of the urban fabric "energy saving", adding to the energy and environmental performance of individual buildings those of the context, in a global energy balance. This study, describing and comparing the main RES available today, suggests a methodology for preliminary assessment of the mix of technologies and RES best suited for each site, configured as a "district energy". The results of this process provide the basics to prepare the necessary actions related to the integration of the energy efficiency in Town Planning through the application of the principles of equalization in the definition of performance requirements to the scale of settlements, which are essential for a correct transfer in the design of the urban "objects" and “systems".

La ricerca si propone d’indagare sul concetto di “congruità” riferito alle trasformazioni di specifici contesti urbani, e di definire quindi un metodo “non arbitrario” per la valutazione di opere esistenti o in progetto, al fine di riconoscerne il carattere di congruità o, al contrario, d’incongruità. Interventi d’inserimento e di trasformazione, alla scala del comparto urbanistico o anche alla scala edilizia, possono presentarsi come congrui o incongrui rispetto all’identità del luogo di appartenenza (organismo a scala urbana o territoriale). Congrua risulta l’opera che non si pone in (conclamato) contrasto rispetto ai caratteri identitari del contesto. Le definizioni d’incongruità e di opera incongrua, divengono il metro di giudizio del rapporto tra un intervento ed il suo contesto, e si applicano mediante una valutazione che sia metodologicamente fondata e verificata. La valutazione di congruità-incongruità può riferirsi a opere esistenti già realizzate, oppure a progetti di nuove opere; in questo secondo approccio il metodo di valutazione si configura come linea-guida per l’orientamento del progetto stesso in termini di congruità rispetto al contesto. In una fase iniziale la ricerca ha fissato i principi di base, con la definizione di ciò che deve intendersi per congruità e per profilo di congruità. La specifica di congruità, non potendosi basare su una consolidata letteratura (il concetto nei termini descritti è stato introdotto dalla legge 16/2002 della Regione Emilia-Romagna; la Regione stessa riconosce che il concetto è in fase di precisazione tramite sperimentazioni, studi e interventi pilota), muove dallo studio dei concetti di luogo, caratteri del luogo, identità del luogo, contesto urbano, trasformazione dell’ambiente costruito, tutela del patrimonio edilizio, sviluppo tipologico, e superfetazione incongrua. Questi concetti, pur mutuati da ambiti di ricerca affini, costituiscono i presupposti per la definizione di congruità delle trasformazioni di contesti urbani, rispetto all’identità del luogo, tramite la tutela e valorizzazione dei suoi caratteri tipologici costitutivi. Successivamente, la ricerca ha affrontato l’analisi di taluni casi-tipo di opere incongrue. A tale scopo sono stati scelti quattro casi-tipo d’interventi per rimozione di opere ritenute incongrue, indagando la metodologia di valutazione di congruità in essi applicata. Inoltre è stata sperimentata l’applicazione del metodo di valutazione per “categorie di alterazioni” tramite lo studio del centro storico di Reggio Emilia, assunto come contesto urbano campione. Lo studio analitico è sviluppato attraverso l’indagine del rapporto tra edifici e caratteri del contesto, individuando e classificando gli edifici ritenuti incongrui. Qui sono emersi i limiti del metodo di individuazione delle incongruità per categorie di alterazioni; di fatto le alterazioni definite a priori rispetto al contesto, determinano un giudizio arbitrario, in quanto disancorato dai caratteri del luogo. La definizione di ciò che è congruo o incongruo deve invece riferirsi a uno specifico contesto, e le alterazioni dei caratteri che rappresentano l’identità del luogo non possono definirsi a priori generalizzandone i concetti. Completando la ricerca nella direzione del risultato proposto, si è precisato il metodo di valutazione basato sulla coincidenza dei concetti di congruità e di pertinenza di fase, in rapporto allo sviluppo tipologico del contesto. La conoscenza del contesto nei suoi caratteri tipologici, è già metodo di valutazione: nella misura in cui sia possibile effettuare un confronto fra contesto ed opera da valutare. La valutazione non si pone come vincolo all’introduzione di nuove forme che possano rappresentare un’evoluzione dell’esistente, aggiornando il processo di sviluppo tipologico in relazione alle mutazioni del quadro esigenzialeprestazionale, ma piuttosto come barriera alle trasformazioni acritiche nei confronti del contesto, che si sovrappongano o ne cancellino inconsapevolmente i segni peculiari e identitari. In ultima analisi, ai fini dell’applicabilità dei concetti esposti, la ricerca indaga sulla convergenza tra metodo proposto e possibili procedure applicative; in questo senso chiarisce come sia auspicabile definire la congruità in relazione a procedure valutative aperte. Lo strumento urbanistico, inteso come sistema di piani alle diverse scale, è l’ambito idoneo a recepire la lettura della stratificazione dei segni indentitari rilevabili in un contesto; lettura che si attua tramite processi decisionali partecipati, al fine di estendere alla collettività la definizione d’identità culturale del luogo. La valutazione specifica di opere o progetti richiede quindi una procedura aperta, similmente alla procedura di valutazione in vigore presso le soprintendenze, basandosi sul concetto di responsabilità del progettista e del valutatore, in riferimento alla responsabilità della collettività, espressa invece nello strumento urbanistico. Infatti la valutazione di tipo oggettivo, basata sul riferimento a regolamenti o schemi precostituiti, confligge con il senso della valutazione metodologicamente fondata che, al contrario, è assunto teorico basilare della ricerca.

As artes visuais, e especificamente a fotografia, possibilitam uma linguagem indireta e ao mesmo tempo subjetiva sobre as transformações do espaço. Isto nos faz pensar sobre o olhar singular do sujeito, que por sua vez também diz respeito ao contexto urbano como um todo. A fotografia ingressa neste trabalho como ferramenta comum de captação das imagens em três experiências por mim realizadas através de percursos. Ela não contribui apenas como um instrumento mecânico capaz de gerar imagens mas, principalmente, como um processo de reflexão sobre a arquitetura através da origem do processo fotográfico negativo-positivo e suas alternâncias (presença/ausência, mobilidade/imobilidade, luz/sombra, irreversível/inacabável) numa relação com a cidade. A primeira experiência, realizada junto ao viaduto Otávio Rocha, apresentada em pranchas de contato, tem o movimento futurista como referencial teórico, e relaciona o deslocamento do sujeito salientando questões referentes à simultaneidade, à velocidade, à mobilidade e à multiplicidade de imagens Na seqüência fotográfica, realizada na segunda experiência em Paris, a simultaneidade acontece através do acaso e da leitura das imagens que apresenta outros percursos realizados através do pensamento analógico, com referência no movimento surrealista. A terceira experiência se concentra especificamente no olhar, na atenção, no acúmulo de imagens e nas sombras projetadas, próprio do processo fotográfico, relacionado-os com o fenômeno urbano e o processo de tradução do fotográfico: o desenho panorâmico da avenida Borges de Medeiros. As características das imagens destas três experiências estão muito próximas das situações vividas na cidade. A fragmentação o acúmulo fotográficos gerados a partir dos percursos, constituem uma resposta simbólica à relação do sujeito na realidade urbana O processo de resgate do olhar do sujeito é análogo ao processo fotográfico pois, ao fotografarmos, iniciamos um processo de assimilação que se completa com o trabalho do negativo. O ato fotográfico, como tal, representa, enfim, a concretização da importância física do olhar de cada sujeito sobre a arquitetura e sobre a cidade.

As artes visuais, e especificamente a fotografia, possibilitam uma linguagem indireta e ao mesmo tempo subjetiva sobre as transformações do espaço. Isto nos faz pensar sobre o olhar singular do sujeito, que por sua vez também diz respeito ao contexto urbano como um todo. A fotografia ingressa neste trabalho como ferramenta comum de captação das imagens em três experiências por mim realizadas através de percursos. Ela não contribui apenas como um instrumento mecânico capaz de gerar imagens mas, principalmente, como um processo de reflexão sobre a arquitetura através da origem do processo fotográfico negativo-positivo e suas alternâncias (presença/ausência, mobilidade/imobilidade, luz/sombra, irreversível/inacabável) numa relação com a cidade. A primeira experiência, realizada junto ao viaduto Otávio Rocha, apresentada em pranchas de contato, tem o movimento futurista como referencial teórico, e relaciona o deslocamento do sujeito salientando questões referentes à simultaneidade, à velocidade, à mobilidade e à multiplicidade de imagens Na seqüência fotográfica, realizada na segunda experiência em Paris, a simultaneidade acontece através do acaso e da leitura das imagens que apresenta outros percursos realizados através do pensamento analógico, com referência no movimento surrealista. A terceira experiência se concentra especificamente no olhar, na atenção, no acúmulo de imagens e nas sombras projetadas, próprio do processo fotográfico, relacionado-os com o fenômeno urbano e o processo de tradução do fotográfico: o desenho panorâmico da avenida Borges de Medeiros. As características das imagens destas três experiências estão muito próximas das situações vividas na cidade. A fragmentação o acúmulo fotográficos gerados a partir dos percursos, constituem uma resposta simbólica à relação do sujeito na realidade urbana O processo de resgate do olhar do sujeito é análogo ao processo fotográfico pois, ao fotografarmos, iniciamos um processo de assimilação que se completa com o trabalho do negativo. O ato fotográfico, como tal, representa, enfim, a concretização da importância física do olhar de cada sujeito sobre a arquitetura e sobre a cidade.

As artes visuais, e especificamente a fotografia, possibilitam uma linguagem indireta e ao mesmo tempo subjetiva sobre as transformações do espaço. Isto nos faz pensar sobre o olhar singular do sujeito, que por sua vez também diz respeito ao contexto urbano como um todo. A fotografia ingressa neste trabalho como ferramenta comum de captação das imagens em três experiências por mim realizadas através de percursos. Ela não contribui apenas como um instrumento mecânico capaz de gerar imagens mas, principalmente, como um processo de reflexão sobre a arquitetura através da origem do processo fotográfico negativo-positivo e suas alternâncias (presença/ausência, mobilidade/imobilidade, luz/sombra, irreversível/inacabável) numa relação com a cidade. A primeira experiência, realizada junto ao viaduto Otávio Rocha, apresentada em pranchas de contato, tem o movimento futurista como referencial teórico, e relaciona o deslocamento do sujeito salientando questões referentes à simultaneidade, à velocidade, à mobilidade e à multiplicidade de imagens Na seqüência fotográfica, realizada na segunda experiência em Paris, a simultaneidade acontece através do acaso e da leitura das imagens que apresenta outros percursos realizados através do pensamento analógico, com referência no movimento surrealista. A terceira experiência se concentra especificamente no olhar, na atenção, no acúmulo de imagens e nas sombras projetadas, próprio do processo fotográfico, relacionado-os com o fenômeno urbano e o processo de tradução do fotográfico: o desenho panorâmico da avenida Borges de Medeiros. As características das imagens destas três experiências estão muito próximas das situações vividas na cidade. A fragmentação o acúmulo fotográficos gerados a partir dos percursos, constituem uma resposta simbólica à relação do sujeito na realidade urbana O processo de resgate do olhar do sujeito é análogo ao processo fotográfico pois, ao fotografarmos, iniciamos um processo de assimilação que se completa com o trabalho do negativo. O ato fotográfico, como tal, representa, enfim, a concretização da importância física do olhar de cada sujeito sobre a arquitetura e sobre a cidade.

Hemos tomado el material como vínculo entre los edificios. Sin un planteamiento desde la arquitectura, la historia, la sociología, el urbanismo o incluso la propia construcción, pero sin serle del todo ajenas, la tesis pretende sistematizar una información que actualmente no existe, que ponga al ladrillo cara vista en su sitio, aportando datos suficientes para que éste sea reconocido como de suso generalizado, elemento de gran riqueza expresiva, exponente máximo del racionalismo constructivo, material durable de una nobleza incuestionable, capaz de aportar su color, forma, textura y movimiento al servicio de cualquier estilo, moda, economía, época o emplazamiento. Partir de la inexistencia de estudios previos, disciplina o investigación sobre el particular, hace que la tesis sea empírica y no histórica. / Blat Llorens, JV. (1996). Presencia del ladrillo cara vista en el primer ensanche de la ciudad de Valencia [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/6022 / Palancia

The focus of the Ph.D. dissertation is on the thermal part of the energy planning issue since the space conditioning (heating and cooling – H&C) of buildings represents about 75% of the energy consumed by European residential buildings and only 16% of the heating and cooling consumption is covered by renewable energy sources (RES). At the same time, the increased complexity of the spatial planning process when energy issues are involved has made clear the need for new “energy-aware” tools and methods used in this field. The proposed methodology is GIS (Geographical Information System)-based and performed at regional scale given that the movement of energy planning activities from national to regional and local scale allows a much more detailed analysis of both the energy demand and supply, balancing them more effectively. The integration of the spatial dimension within energy analyses can also provide the decision-makers with a spatially-explicit approach towards the energy transition and the development of sustainable energy plans and strategies. The general aim of the Ph.D. thesis is to develop a Spatial Decision Support System (SDSS) allowing the decision-makers to take into account (during the planning process) both the improvement of the energy production from RES and the energy renovation of the existing building stock. The SDSS aims also to connect the energy planning (supply side) with spatial planning (demand side) by seeking synergies between the two fields. This connection is made taking advantage of the framework of the Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA). The Ph.D. thesis is partially developed within a European co-financed project included in the Interreg Alpine Space programme. The GRETA project was designed to foster the use of shallow geothermal energy (SGE) in energy plans and strategies along the Alps. SGE is a low-carbon source for H&C of buildings, which exploits the heat stored within the ground, a local source widely available and less dependent from changes in time compared to other RES. Despite this, its exploitation is not yet diffused and its growth is limited mainly by factors such as scarce knowledge, complicated and fragmented legislation, and high installation costs. Considering all these issues, the research questions that shaped the Ph.D. activities are: ➢ How to estimate the thermal energy demand of the residential building stock at the regional scale, as a starting point for developing sustainable energy strategies aimed at the reduction of the thermal energy consumption in the existing buildings. ➢ How to integrate this appraisal in the energy planning of a region in order to elaborate different scenarios for the energy balance between thermal demand and supply, fostering the use of shallow geothermal energy (SGE) that is a renewable source still not well-known and not exploited. ➢ How to encourage the connection between energy planning and spatial planning towards the common goal of sustainable energy transition, helping to fill the gap between the development of plans and strategies and their implementation, thanks to the Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) framework. The proposed methodology has been applied in a case study, i.e. Valle d’Aosta, an Italian alpine region. Almost all the data processing is performed with open-source software (GRASS GIS, QGIS, Python, and R) and applying a spatially-explicit approach, for pushing the integration of the spatial dimension in the energy analysis. The spatial units of analysis are the single building and the census tract. The single building has been chosen as the smallest unit available for ensuring a better characterization of the thermal energy demand and of the potential energy production from SGE. Moreover, the scenario analysis for the energy renovation of buildings is better performed at the building level; so, it is particularly suitable for developing an SDSS. Nevertheless, some data processing is done at the census tract level, using aggregated and statistical information to estimate the required values at the building level. The reason for this twofold scale of analysis is that the data availability often changes depending on time, space and data provider. For instance, for the case study area only little data was available at the building level for the whole region. Therefore, the methodology integrates data from different sources to fill this knowledge gap. The methodology applied in the case study is divided into two parts: 1) The first one concerns the data collection and processing for the spatial estimation of the space heating demand of the existing building stock. At the end of it, the technical and economic suitability of SGE (performed within the GRETA project) for covering the energy demand of buildings and replacing some fossil fuels is evaluated. 2) The second one is carried out in the framework of SEA, by defining common objectives and developing scenarios for the integration of SGE in the energy planning process, as the short-term objective, and the coordination of energy and spatial planning goals, as the long-term objective. In the Ph.D. thesis, SEA is intended as a conceptual framework for integrating energy and spatial planning, rather than as an evaluation tool. The main outputs of the Ph.D. thesis are: (i) the spatial evaluation of the space heating demand of each residential building of the case study, without using the “archetypes approach”; (ii) the development of a method for the integration of data from different sources and for its estimation if missing at the building level; (iii) the use of SEA as a framework for connecting energy planning and spatial planning fields, to support strategic decision-making processes. Even though the Ph.D. case study is a typical alpine region, (iv) the developed methodology can be applied at different scales and not only on alpine regions but potentially in every kind of context. Since it strongly depends on the availability of data, the replicability of the methodology is quite high. The main expected impacts of these outputs are: (1) SDSS allows to reach a trade-off between the number of input data and the level of detail often required by decision-makers; (2) SDSS can support the decision-makers allowing them to analyse from various viewpoints different energy scenarios and also to localise where is better to address the energy measures; (3) the results at the building level represent a starting point for defining and developing strategies for the energy transition of settlements at different scales; (4) SEA used as a strategic tool for integrating energy and spatial planning, by coordinating strategic objectives, and linking the thesis outputs to the energy decision-making process.

Human wellbeing in cities, often associated to availability of engineered structures, is increasingly linked to the conservation of ecosystems. This is the case of the urban water sector where the focus is shifting from adequate infrastructural arrangements to the key role of ecosystem services, thus offering a unique opportunity to achieve sustainability transitions. The urban water sector entails significant complexities and uncertainties, which no longer can be addressed effectively with traditional approaches. A new paradigm of “adaptation and integration”, emerging as a collective effort of stakeholders that engage themselves in a process of social learning, is needed. However, real-life implementation is arduous: it requires linking diverse stakeholders and knowledge systems, across management levels and institutional boundaries. Three innovative concepts can help face this challenge, namely, ecosystem services, boundary work and learning organizations. Ecosystem services provide a holistic approach for framing socio-ecological issues and for integrating different biophysical and socio-economic data. Boundary work, i.e. the effort put in place to facilitate transfer of knowledge into action, informs active management of the tension at the interface between stakeholders that have differing views on what constitutes relevant knowledge. A learning organization is one that is skilled at creating and acquiring knowledge and modifying its behavior to reflect new insights. In this study, these three concepts are jointly explored to build operative approaches to support the implementation of adaptive management. To this end, the work is driven by four specific objectives presented hereafter. The first objective is to frame the urban water sector from an ecosystem services perspective, synthesizing the most relevant aspects related to the exchange of water between watershed and city, and within the city. The proposed framework highlights the role of the urban water sector in (i) linking ecosystem service production and benefit areas, (ii) bridging spatial scales ranging from the watershed to the household level and (iii) adopting ecosystem service-based responses to drivers of water vulnerability. The second objective is to explore practices of boundary work in adaptive watershed management. Thus, an empirical investigation of how boundary work can facilitate knowledge co-generation and cooperative application in a case study of adaptive management in the Fuhrberg watershed (Germany) is conducted. The results suggest that scientific insights have been crucial for "enlightenment", "decision-support", and in "negotiations" between a water utility and stakeholders in Fuhrberg watershed management. The successful implementation of adaptive watershed management is attributed to boundary work deployed by the water utility and ultimately to its high institutional capacity. This study, which is one of the first empirical assessments of boundary work in practice, presents many promising approaches for initiating boundary work in the case of water utilities. Yet, more comparative research is required to understand the influence of contextual differences on appropriate methods and potential outcomes of boundary work. The third objective is to build and test an approach for designing and assessing impact of watershed investments, aiming to implement adaptive management. The proposed approach is structured to facilitate negotiations among stakeholders. Its strategic component includes setting the agenda, defining investment scenarios, and assessing the performance of watershed investments. Its technical component consists of tailoring spatially explicit ecosystem service models, generating future land use scenarios, and modeling impacts on ecosystem services. The approach is applied to a case study in a data-scarce context: Toker Watershed (Eritrea), considering soil erosion -related challenges. It produced spatially explicit data, which has been aggregated to assess quantitatively the performance of watershed investments, in terms of changes in selected ecosystem services, thus answering key management and planning questions. By addressing stakeholders’ concerns of credibility, saliency, and legitimacy, the approach is expected to facilitate the negotiation of objectives, definition of scenarios, and assessment of watershed investments. The fourth objective is to explore water utilities as learning organization implementing adaptive watershed management. A conceptual framework for evaluating the institutional capacity of water utilities is used to characterize the water utilities in Hanover and Asmara. In particular, the institutional capacity of the “Hannover Water Utility” and “Asmara Water Supply Department” is investigated based on the available information from documents, literature and the previous results, and an interview with a key informant. The results show that the institutional capacity of Hanover Water Utility can be classified as Level 5 – “Progressive water utility” and Asmara Water Supply Department can be classified as Level 2 – “Basic water utility”. An empirical pathway to test the results, by involving senior managers and informed scientists from both case studies, is proposed. In any case, the preliminary results highlight the attributes that determine the capacity of water utilities to become a central actor in the in the implementation of an adaptive watershed management. This research, by jointly exploring the innovative concepts of ecosystem services, boundary work and learning organizations, builds operative approaches that can support the implementation of adaptive watershed management. Further work is needed to address some of the complexities and uncertainties underlying the proposed approaches, including data resolution, model calibration, and above all participation of real-life stakeholders

Ecosystem Services (ESs) are the goods and services supplied by ecosystems. In order to fully understand their contribution to human wellbeing, there is a need to identify them, assess their supply, recognise areas where they appear together repeatedly and analyse the interactions that may exist among them. Most of these tasks are also specifically required by the European Biodiversity Strategy for 2020, which asks Member States, by 2014, to identify key ESs and to spatially assess their supply and demand (European Commission, 2011). Nevertheless, these are difficult tasks and to date they have been only partly performed: existing studies in fact have typically focused on a small sub-set of ESs and made use of information that poorly reflects the actual variability of the ESs distribution across a region. The present research aims to fill these gaps, by developing methods involving a wide set of ESs and providing a detailed ESs assessment, based on spatial and statistical analyses. The methods have been tested on an Alpine region of Italy, Trentino. The Alps present a heterogeneous landscape, resulting from the combination of natural and urbanized environments, that allows the supply of a wide range of ESs. The research has four specific objectives. The first objective focuses on the selection and the representation over specific spatial units of the real supply of multiple ESs. Operatively, 51 experts from the local administrative offices and research institutes have been involved in the selection of the most important ESs and spatial indicators for the case study. The experts identified 25 ESs and 57 representative spatial indicators (1 to 5 indicators for each service), and provided data for indicators mapping. To consider the heterogeneity of the ESs supply across the region, indicators were mapped over 20 different spatial units, including: land cover classes, cadastral parcels, fishing zones and catchments.The second objective is to develop and test a statistical method for identifying key indicators that are spatially-explicit and able to measure the biophysical, socio-cultural and economic values of ESs (both in terms of stock and flow). Spearman pairwise correlation analysis was performed among the indicators of the same service in order to identify the highly correlated ones, hence deemed to provide redundant information. Key indicators were selected among the lowly correlated ones. 35 indicators were selected for the case study (out of the 57 initial indicators). The analysis showed that there is a minimum number of key indicators for each ES. Accordingly, three general rules were identified for the selection: (i) if the supply of an ES is regulated, both its biophysical-stock and biophysical-flow indicators must be selected, (ii) if multiple stock (flow) biophysical indicators for a single ES are mapped over different spatial units, all stock (flow) indicators must be maintained, (iii) socio-cultural or economic indicators are always selected as key indicators. The third objective is to develop and test a statistical method for defining bundles of ESs, as sets of spatially correlated services. Principal Component Analysis was used to summarize the information of the 35 indicators, while hierarchical clustering was applied to identify 11 ESs clusters. Clusters were turned into bundles by analyzing the spatial variability of the services due to biophysical (e.g. morphological conditions) and human (e.g. land use) factors. The results of the analysis show that in Trentino multiple ESs can be grouped in a few number of bundles with a complex shape. In particular, areas with poor ESs supply are grouped in one single bundle and the largest bundle follows the spatial distribution of a single land cover class: i.e. forest.The fourth objective is to develop a method to study interactions among ESs, by combining statistical and spatial analyses. In fact, the supply of a given ES is correlated with the supply of other ESs and it is affected by multiple external factors. Correlations may be positive when an increase in the supply of one service corresponds to higher supplies of other services (i.e. synergies), or negative when an increase in the supply of one service corresponds to lower supplies of other services (i.e. tradeoffs). The degree of interactions among 35 key indicators is determined by performing a Spearman pairwise correlation analysis. The latter enabled to identify six patterns of ESs interactions, one pattern of tradeoffs and five of synergies. The analysis showed that the local land use management has not compromised the capacity of ecosystems to provide regulating services while supplying the provisioning ones. The external factors causing the variability of the services across the region were identified and explained by means of spatial and Spearman correlation analyses among the ESs principal components. Principal components were turned into drivers of change by analyzing the spatial variability of the ESs due to biophysical (e.g. forest density) and human (e.g. land use) factors. Land use management was found as the external factor that causes the greatest variability of the ESs distribution across the region. Within forest areas, forest management activities that involve loss of vegetation were found as the main drivers of ESs change. This research aimed to consider a wide set of ESs and information able to reflect the actual variability of the services distribution across a region. It proposed a scientifically sound methodology to deal with the main issues of the ESs spatial assessment, that may reveal efficiently applicable in other geographical areas where ESs are heterogeneously supplied.

Most of the significant changes on the environment have resulted from individually minor but collectively significant human actions and decisions. This kind of consequences has been defined Cumulative Effects (CE) and their systematic consideration can be attributed to the scientific basis and institutional context of Environmental Assessment (EA) theory and practice. However, although Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) has been largely recognised as one of the most appropriate procedure to support spatial and land use plans in managing CE; the advancement in integrating the assessment of CE into SEA practice has been often stated slow to evolve, suggesting a gap between SEA theory and practice in treating cumulative effects and confirming that further investigation on this subject is required. This research aimed to propose and apply a methodological approach to improve the consideration of CE in SEA of spatial plans, by focusing on the Italian spatial planning system and urban regions. It was developed according to the main findings and shortcomings emerging from the academic literature and the exploration of SEA practice through: an international expert survey; a systematic review of SEA documents; and a couple of real-life SEA case studies following during the research period. Among the most important were: the lack of scoping of relevant resources (or Valued Ecosystem Component); the scarce exploration of future decisions and consequences; and the requirement of a more evidence-based assessment of CE. The methodological approach was then developed for SEA of regional spatial plans, consisting of four main tasks: the selection of significant valued resources; the identification of other relevant decisions (projects, plans and policies) which together with the spatial plan could contribute to CE; the generation of land use scenarios; and the prediction of CE through indicators. Then, the methodological approach was tested in a case study selected within the peri-urban region of Milan, representing one of the most urbanised and industrialised part of Italy, with significant urban pressures on existing protected areas and remaining rural patches. Firstly, the regional green infrastructure was selected as the most important regional valued resource (or VEC); then, three important ‘future policies’ were identified (i.e. highway transportation corridor, protected areas conservation plans, and rural policies). Subsequently, a set of future land use scenarios were developed and made spatially explicit, starting from a couple of regional land use maps. Then, the regional cumulative effects on the selected valued resource (e.g. habitat fragmentation, surface runoff, etc.) were assessed against a range of future conditions through a core set of indicators, mainly quantitative and spatially explicit, simulating relevant environmental processes, such as hydrological cycle, local surface temperature, ecological connectivity. They were all selected and computed starting from land cover data, allowing the combined effects to be quantified and land use scenarios to be compared. The results mainly showed that the method provided an applicable means to, firstly, transfer policies and decisions into maps, and then, predict their combined effects on selected VEC. Moreover, it can be straightforwardly included in SEA of regional spatial plans in order to support a more evidence-based CE analysis, by adding spatial thinking to decision-makers and improving the understanding and the perception of the cumulative consequences of their “minor” decisions under uncertain future policy contexts.