Η αστάθεια τάσης αποτελεί ένα σημαντικό πρόβλημα για τα συστήματα ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας. Ένα σύστημα εισέρχεται σε κατάσταση αστάθειας τάσης λόγω αύξησης της ζήτησης, μιας ξαφνικής, ευρείας κλίμακας διαταραχής ή αλλαγής στην κατάσταση του, που μπορεί να προκαλέσει μια σταδιακή και ανεξέλεγκτη πτώση τάσης. Παρουσιάζει, λοιπόν, ιδιαίτερο ενδιαφέρον η μεταβατική συμπεριφορά του συστήματος σε σχέση με την ευστάθεια της τάσης. Επίσης, κατά τη λειτουργία ενός Σ.Η.Ε., είναι σημαντικό για το χειριστή να γνωρίζει το μέγιστο επιτρεπτό φορτίο του συστήματος χωρίς να κινδυνεύει από αστάθεια τάσης. Η δυναμική ευστάθεια τάσης μπορεί να διαιρεθεί σε βραχυπρόθεσμη και μακροπρόθεσμη. Στην παρούσα διπλωματική εργασία θα δώσουμε έμφαση στη βραχυπρόθεσμη ευστάθεια τάσης. Για το σκοπό αυτό, αναπτύσσονται δυναμικά μοντέλα που περιγράφουν τη λειτουργία απλών συστημάτων ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας στο περιβάλλον του MATLAB/SIMULINK. Διερευνάται η επίδραση του φορτίου επαγωγικού κινητήρα ενός απλού Σ.Η.Ε., όσον αφορά στη βραχυπρόθεσμη ευστάθεια τάσης, χρησιμοποιώντας τις P-V καμπύλες τόσο του κινητήρα όσο και του δικτύου. Τα αποτελέσματα που προκύπτουν, κατόπιν επαληθεύονται παρατηρώντας τις καταστάσεις του συστήματος στο πεδίο του χρόνου. Με την ανάλυση φαίνεται ότι με την ανάλυση φαίνεται ότι μετά από βραχυκύκλωμα η τάση του συστήματος μειώνεται δραστικά και αυτό μπορεί να προκαλέσει την κατάρρευση του συστήματος όταν αυτό έχει ως φορτίο επαγωγικό κινητήρα. Η κατάρρευση αυτή μπορεί να αποφευχθεί με την όσο το δυνατόν ταχύτερη εκκαθάριση του σφάλματος. Σημαντικός παράγων γι’ αυτό είναι ο καθορισμός του κρίσιμου χρόνου εκκαθάρισης του σφάλματος με σκοπό την αποφυγή της εμφάνισης αστάθειας. Το πρόβλημα αυτό αναλύεται διεξοδικά και ορίζονται με αναλυτικό τρόπο τόσο ο κρίσιμος χρόνος εκκαθάρισης όσο και η κρίσιμη τιμή της ολίσθησης του επαγωγικού κινητήρα. Χρησιμοποιώντας επιπλέον χωρητική αντιστάθμιση αέργου ισχύος αναλύεται ο τρόπος που αυτή βελτιώνει τα περιθώρια ευσταθούς λειτουργίας κατά τη διάρκεια σφαλμάτων. Στη συνέχεια, για τον καθορισμό ενός δείκτη ευστάθειας τάσης σε σχέση με το μέγιστο επιτρεπτό φορτίο σε ένα δίκτυο, περιγράφεται μία διαδικασία καθορισμού ενός τέτοιου δείκτη, η οποία βασίζεται στη σύνθετη τιμή της τάσης όλων των ζυγών ενός συστήματος. Ο προτεινόμενος δείκτης χρησιμοποιείται για την εκτίμηση της μέγιστης φόρτισης του συστήματος. Επιπροσθέτως, καθορίζονται τα πιο «αδύναμα» τμήματα του συστήματος (κρίσιμος ζυγός και κρίσιμη γραμμή) για κατάλληλη άεργο αντιστάθμιση προς αποφυγή κατάρρευσης της τάσης. / Voltage instability has been a great concern for quite a long time in electric power industry. A system enters a state of voltage instability due to increase in demand, a sudden large disturbance or a change in system condition that causes a progressive and uncontrollable decline in voltage. It is therefore interesting to study both the dynamic and static aspects of voltage stability. Dynamic voltage stability can be divided into short-term and long-term based on the dynamics of the components that affect the voltage stability. In this project, we will emphasize on short-term stability. In this study, dynamic models of various power system components are successfully developed in MATLAB/SIMULINK platform. The effect of induction motor load on short-term voltage stability of a simple power system is investigated using the network and motor P-V curves and the results are found and then verified by observing the system states in time domain. Once the reason of voltage instability is identified, a remedial action using fixed capacitive reactive support is suggested to prevent the voltage instability. During a fault, the system voltage reduces drastically and that may cause to stall the induction motors. Stalling of induction motor can be prevented by clearing the fault as quickly as possible. A technique of determining the critical fault clearing time to prevent stalling of induction motor is also presented. In power system operation, it is important for the dispatcher to have knowledge on the maximum permissible loading of the system without reaching voltage instability. In this study, a method of determining the voltage stability index of a system based on the complex voltage of all buses in the system is described. The proposed index is then used in estimating the maximum loading of the system and is based on the information of present and past operating points. In addition, the weakest segments (critical bus and critical line) of the system are also identified for appropriate reactive compensations to avoid voltage collapse. The correctness of the identified critical bus and critical line is then verified by placing shunt/series capacitors at various locations and comparing the corresponding critical load multiplier factors

Η αστάθεια τάσης αποτελεί ένα σημαντικό πρόβλημα για τα συστήματα ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας. Ένα σύστημα εισέρχεται σε κατάσταση αστάθειας τάσης λόγω αύξησης της ζήτησης, μιας ξαφνικής, ευρείας κλίμακας διαταραχής ή αλλαγής στην κατάσταση του, που μπορεί να προκαλέσει μια σταδιακή και ανεξέλεγκτη πτώση τάσης. Παρουσιάζει, λοιπόν, ιδιαίτερο ενδιαφέρον η μεταβατική συμπεριφορά του συστήματος σε σχέση με την ευστάθεια της τάσης. Επίσης, κατά τη λειτουργία ενός Σ.Η.Ε., είναι σημαντικό για το χειριστή να γνωρίζει το μέγιστο επιτρεπτό φορτίο του συστήματος χωρίς να κινδυνεύει από αστάθεια τάσης. Η δυναμική ευστάθεια τάσης μπορεί να διαιρεθεί σε βραχυπρόθεσμη και μακροπρόθεσμη. Στην παρούσα διπλωματική εργασία θα δώσουμε έμφαση στη βραχυπρόθεσμη ευστάθεια τάσης. Για το σκοπό αυτό, αναπτύσσονται δυναμικά μοντέλα που περιγράφουν τη λειτουργία απλών συστημάτων ηλεκτρικής ενέργειας στο περιβάλλον του MATLAB/SIMULINK. Διερευνάται η επίδραση του φορτίου επαγωγικού κινητήρα ενός απλού Σ.Η.Ε., όσον αφορά στη βραχυπρόθεσμη ευστάθεια τάσης, χρησιμοποιώντας τις P-V καμπύλες τόσο του κινητήρα όσο και του δικτύου. Τα αποτελέσματα που προκύπτουν, κατόπιν επαληθεύονται παρατηρώντας τις καταστάσεις του συστήματος στο πεδίο του χρόνου. Με την ανάλυση φαίνεται ότι με την ανάλυση φαίνεται ότι μετά από βραχυκύκλωμα η τάση του συστήματος μειώνεται δραστικά και αυτό μπορεί να προκαλέσει την κατάρρευση του συστήματος όταν αυτό έχει ως φορτίο επαγωγικό κινητήρα. Η κατάρρευση αυτή μπορεί να αποφευχθεί με την όσο το δυνατόν ταχύτερη εκκαθάριση του σφάλματος. Σημαντικός παράγων γι’ αυτό είναι ο καθορισμός του κρίσιμου χρόνου εκκαθάρισης του σφάλματος με σκοπό την αποφυγή της εμφάνισης αστάθειας. Το πρόβλημα αυτό αναλύεται διεξοδικά και ορίζονται με αναλυτικό τρόπο τόσο ο κρίσιμος χρόνος εκκαθάρισης όσο και η κρίσιμη τιμή της ολίσθησης του επαγωγικού κινητήρα. Χρησιμοποιώντας επιπλέον χωρητική αντιστάθμιση αέργου ισχύος αναλύεται ο τρόπος που αυτή βελτιώνει τα περιθώρια ευσταθούς λειτουργίας κατά τη διάρκεια σφαλμάτων. Στη συνέχεια, για τον καθορισμό ενός δείκτη ευστάθειας τάσης σε σχέση με το μέγιστο επιτρεπτό φορτίο σε ένα δίκτυο, περιγράφεται μία διαδικασία καθορισμού ενός τέτοιου δείκτη, η οποία βασίζεται στη σύνθετη τιμή της τάσης όλων των ζυγών ενός συστήματος. Ο προτεινόμενος δείκτης χρησιμοποιείται για την εκτίμηση της μέγιστης φόρτισης του συστήματος. Επιπροσθέτως, καθορίζονται τα πιο «αδύναμα» τμήματα του συστήματος (κρίσιμος ζυγός και κρίσιμη γραμμή) για κατάλληλη άεργο αντιστάθμιση προς αποφυγή κατάρρευσης της τάσης. / Voltage instability has been a great concern for quite a long time in electric power industry. A system enters a state of voltage instability due to increase in demand, a sudden large disturbance or a change in system condition that causes a progressive and uncontrollable decline in voltage. It is therefore interesting to study both the dynamic and static aspects of voltage stability. Dynamic voltage stability can be divided into short-term and long-term based on the dynamics of the components that affect the voltage stability. In this project, we will emphasize on short-term stability. In this study, dynamic models of various power system components are successfully developed in MATLAB/SIMULINK platform. The effect of induction motor load on short-term voltage stability of a simple power system is investigated using the network and motor P-V curves and the results are found and then verified by observing the system states in time domain. Once the reason of voltage instability is identified, a remedial action using fixed capacitive reactive support is suggested to prevent the voltage instability. During a fault, the system voltage reduces drastically and that may cause to stall the induction motors. Stalling of induction motor can be prevented by clearing the fault as quickly as possible. A technique of determining the critical fault clearing time to prevent stalling of induction motor is also presented. In power system operation, it is important for the dispatcher to have knowledge on the maximum permissible loading of the system without reaching voltage instability. In this study, a method of determining the voltage stability index of a system based on the complex voltage of all buses in the system is described. The proposed index is then used in estimating the maximum loading of the system and is based on the information of present and past operating points. In addition, the weakest segments (critical bus and critical line) of the system are also identified for appropriate reactive compensations to avoid voltage collapse. The correctness of the identified critical bus and critical line is then verified by placing shunt/series capacitors at various locations and comparing the corresponding critical load multiplier factors

Geomagnetically induced currents (GIC) are manifestations of space weather phenomena on the electric power grid. Although not a new phenomenon, they assume great importance in wake of the present, ever expanding power grids. This thesis discusses the cause of GICs, methodology of modeling them into the power system and the ramifications of their presence in the bulk power system. GIC is treated at a micro level considering its effects on the power system assets like Transformers and also at a macro level with respect to issues like Voltage instability. In illustration, several simulations are made on a transformer & the standard IEEE 14 bus system to reproduce the effect of a geomagnetic storm on a power grid. Various software tools like PowerWorld Simulator, SimPower Systems have been utilized in performing these simulations. Contingency analysis involving the weakest elements in the system has been performed to evaluate the impact of their loss on the system. Test results are laid out and discussed in detail to convey the consequences of a geomagnetic phenomenon on the power grid in a holistic manner.

[pt] O tema abordado neste trabalho é a observação e análise, em regime permanente e dinâmico, da ocorrência de um fenômeno que já foi observado em condições reais de operação do sistema elétrico brasileiro, que é a relação oposta à usual entre a grandeza controlada e a grandeza controladora. Nestes caso, mesmo que haja margem de recursos para manter a tensão controlada, ela não é útil. Por exemplo, uma diminuição na relação de transformação num transformador de tapes variáveis, com intuito de aumentar a tensão controlada acaba por reduzí-la, até que os limites de troca de tapes sejam atingidos ou o sistema entre em colapso. Para demonstrar a existência do problema, foram executadas simulações, em regime permanente e dinâmico, e verificado o efeito do controle de tensão por um transformador com tapes variáveis e por compensadores estáticos de potência reativa, situações corriqueiras de um sistema de potência. Foram demonstradas situações em que foi possível verificar a mudança da região de operação. Para a análise em regime permanente foi utilizado um algoritmo de fluxo de carga, e para a análise dinâmica, uma simulação no domínio do tempo. Nas simulações envolvendo transformadores de tapes variáveis, foi possível verificar a existência o efeito reverso da ação de controle de tensão nas análises estática e dinâmica. Nas simulações utilizando o compensador estático de potência reativa houve divergência entre os resultados das duas análises. / [en] This work presents the observation and analysis, in steady state and dynamic performance, of the phenomenon already observed in real operation conditions of the Brazilian Electric System, which is the opposite relationship between the controlled value and the target value. In this case, even if the resources have margin to keep the voltage controlled, this is not useful. For example, the reduction in the turn ratio on load tap changer transformer, with the aim of increase in the controlled voltage, result in its reduction, until the tap changer limit is reached or the system is led to the collapse. To demonstrate the existence of this problem, steady state and dynamic performance simulations were done, and the voltage control effect by on load tap changer transformer and static var compensator , current situations in a power system. Several situations where is possible verify the operation region changing was demonstrated. For steady state analysis was used a load flow algorithm and, for the dynamic analysis, a time domain simulation. In the simulations with on load tap changer transformer, it was possible to verify the existence of the reverse effect of the voltage control action in the static and dynamic analysis. In the simulations using static var compensator, a divergence was found between the results in the two analyses.

Orientador: Prof. Dr. Claudionor Francisco do Nascimento / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Federal do ABC, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Engenharia Elétrica, 2014. / Os sistemas de distribuição de energia elétrica, de um modo geral, são radiais. Estes sistemas podem possuir problemas de qualidade da energia elétrica em suas barras, tais como os desequilíbrios de tensão e de corrente. Ademais, as redes de distribuição podem conter uma grande quantidade de cargas monofásicas e trifásicas desequilibradas, indutivas e não lineares, o que pode resultar nos seguintes problemas: baixo fator de potência, desequilíbrio de tensão e distorção harmônica. Nesse sentido, devido à dinâmica destas cargas e a ocorrência de fenômenos, como afundamento de tensão por partidas de grandes motores e curtos-circuitos, há a necessidade de solução destas anormalidades, com respostas rápidas de estabilização. De maneira a atender a esta necessidade, os resultados das recentes pesquisas baseadas na eletrônica de potência têm proporcionado a utilização de equipamentos capazes de trabalhar em sistemas de potência de alta tensão. Esse avanço permite aplicações de dispositivos FACTS (Flexible Alternating Current Transmission Systems) nas operações de flexibilidade e mitigação de problemas comuns às redes de energia elétrica de transmissão e de distribuição, melhorando, assim, a qualidade da energia elétrica, o que aumenta a confiabilidade destes sistemas. Com este propósito, o presente trabalho tem como objetivo principal o estudo e a modelagem de um DSTATCOM (Distribution Static Compensator) em um sistema de distribuição de energia elétrica com variações de tensão, avaliando os possíveis benefícios proporcionados a este sistema. Os resultados de simulação foram obtidos com o auxílio do software MatLab/Simuling. / Distribution systems of electric power, in general, are radial. These systems have power quality problems in their power bars, such as the voltage variations. Moreover, the distribution networks contain a large amount of single-phase and three-phase unbalanced loads, inductive and non-linear, which may result in the following problems: low power factor, voltage unbalance, and harmonic distortion. Accordingly, due to the dynamic loads and the occurrence of these phenomena, such as voltage sag matches by large motors and short circuits, there is a need for solution of these abnormalities, with responsive stabilization. In order to meet this need, the results of recent research based on power electronics have provided the use of equipment to work on systems of high voltage power. This advancement allows applications FACTS devices (Flexible Alternating Current Transmission Systems) flexibility in operations and mitigation of problems common to the networks of electricity transmission and distribution, thus improving the quality of electric power, which increases the reliability of these systems. For this purpose, the present work has as main objective the study and modeling of a DSTATCOM (Distribution Static Compensator) in a system of electricity distribution, evaluating the possible benefits provided to the electric power system. The simulation results were obtained with the aid of software Matlab/Simuling. The effectiveness of the work has been proven since the DSTATCOM installed, the distribution network operated within established standards.

Dans les années 2000, les composants de puissance en carbure de silicium (SiC) font leur apparition sur le marché industriel offrant d'excellentes performances. Elles se traduisent par de meilleurs rendements et des fréquences de découpage plus élevées, entrainant une réduction significative du volume et de la masse des convertisseurs de puissance. Le SiC présente de plus un potentiel important de fonctionnement en haute température (>200°C) et permet donc d'envisager de placer l'électronique dans des environnements très contraints jusqu'alors inaccessibles. Pourtant les parts de marche du SiC restent limitées dans l'industrie vis à vis du manque de retour d'expérience concernant la fiabilité de ces technologies relativement nouvelles. Cette question reste aujourd'hui sans réponse et c'est avec cet objectif qu'a été menée cette étude axée sur le vieillissement et l'analyse des mécanismes de dégradation sur des composants de puissance SiC pour des applications haute température. Les tests de vieillissement ont été réalisés sur des transistors MOSFET SiC car ces composants attirent les industriels grâce à leur simplicité de commande et leur sécurité "normalement bloqué" (Normally-OFF). Néanmoins, la fiabilité de l'oxyde de grille est le paramètre limitant de cette structure. C'est pourquoi l'étude de la dérive de la tension de seuil a été mesurée avec une explication du phénomène d'instabilité du VTH. Les résultats ont montré qu'avec l'amélioration des procédés de fabrication, l'oxyde du MOSFET est robuste même pour des températures élevées (jusqu'à 300°C) atteintes grâce à un packaging approprié. Les durées de vie moyennes ont été extraites grâce à un banc de vieillissement accéléré développé pour cette étude. Des analyses macroscopiques ont été réalisées afin d'observer l'évolution des paramètres électriques en fonction du temps. Des études microscopiques sont conduites dans l'objectif d'associer l'évolution des caractéristiques électriques par rapport aux dégradations physiques internes à la puce. Pour notre véhicule de test, la défaillance se traduit par un emballement du courant de grille en régime statique et par l'apparition de fissures dans le poly-Silicium de la grille. Pour finir, une étude de comparaison avec des nouveaux transistors MOSFET a été réalisée. Ainsi l'analogie entre ces composants s'est portée sur des performances statiques, dynamiques, dérivé de la tension de seuil et sur la durée de vie moyenne dans le test de vieillissement. Le fil rouge de ces travaux de recherche est une analyse des mécanismes de dégradation avec une méthodologie rigoureuse permettant la réalisation d'une étude de fiabilité. Ces travaux peuvent servir de base pour toutes analyses d'anticipation de défaillances avec une estimation de la durée de vie extrapolée aux températures de l'application visée / Since 2000, Silicon Carbide (SiC) power devices have been available on the market offering tremendous performances. This leads to really high efficiency power systems, and allows achieving significative improvements in terms of volume and weight, i.e. a better integration. Moreover, SiC devices could be used at high temperature (>200°C). However, the SiCmarket share is limited by the lack of reliability studies. This problem has yet to be solved and this is the objective of this study : aging and failure mechanisms on power devices for high temperature applications. Aging tests have been realized on SiC MOSFETs. Due to its simple drive requirement and the advantage of safe normally-Off operation, SiCMOSFET is becoming a very promising device. However, the gate oxide remains one of the major weakness of this device. Thus, in this study, the threshold voltage shift has been measured and its instability has been explained. Results demonstrate good lifetime and stable operation regarding the threshold voltage below a 300°C temperature reached using a suitable packaging. Understanding SiC MOSFET reliability issues under realistic switching conditions remains a challenge that requires investigations. A specific aging test has been developed to monitor the electrical parameters of the device. This allows to estimate the health state and predict the remaining lifetime.Moreover, the defects in the failed device have been observed by using FIB and SEM imagery. The gate leakage current appears to reflect the state of health of the component with a runaway just before the failure. This hypothesis has been validated with micrographs showing cracks in the gate. Eventually, a comparative study has been realized with the new generations of SiCMOSFET

Voltage instability is a major concern in operation of power systems and it is well known that voltage instability and collapse have led to blackout or abnormally low voltages in a significant part of the power system. Consequently, tracking the proximity of the power system to an insecure voltage condition has become an important element of any protection and control scheme. The expected time until instability is a critical aspect. There are a few energy management systems including voltage stability analysis function in the real-time environment of control centres, these are based on assumptions (such as off-line models of the system loads) that may lead the system to an insecure operation and/or poor utilization of the resources. Voltage instability is driven by the load dynamics, and investigations have shown that load restoration due to the on-load tap changer (OLTC) action is the main cause of the voltage instability. However, the aggregate loads seen from bulk power delivery transformers are still the most uncertain power system components, due to the uncertainty of the participation of individual loads and shortcomings of the present approaches in the load modeling. In order to develop and implement a true on-line voltage stability analysis method, the on-line accurate modeling of the higher voltage (supply system) and the lower voltage level (aggregate load) based on the local measurements is required. In this research, using the changes in the load bus measured voltage and current, novel methods are developed to estimate the supply system equivalent and to identify load parameters. Random changes in the load voltage and current are processed to estimate the supply system Thevenin impedance and the composite load components are identified in a peeling process using the load bus data changes during a large disturbance in the system. The results are then used to anticipate a possible long-term voltage instability caused by the on-load tap changer operation following the disturbance. Work on the standard test system is provided to validate the proposed methods. The findings in this research are expected to provide a better understanding of the load dynamics role in the voltage stability, and improve the reliability and economy of the system operation by making it possible to decrease uncertainty in security margins and determine accurately the transfer limits.