Thesis (Ph. D.)--Washington State University, December 2009. / Title from PDF title page (viewed on Dec. 15, 2009). "School of Earth and Environmental Sciences." Includes bibliographical references (p. 232-247).

The relative importance of infrequent, episodic geomorphic events (e.g. floods, landslides, debris flows, earthquakes, tsunamis, etc.) in the evolution of the landscape has been a long-discussed question in the geomorphology community. These events are large in magnitude, but low in frequency, posing the complex question of how effective these events are at shaping the landscape. Unfortunately, the frequencies of these events are so low that it is extremely difficult to observe these events over human time scales. Also, the dangerous nature of these events makes them extremely difficult to observe and measure. However, the last few decades have brought new technology and techniques that provide a way to measure and calculate the magnitudes of these events more accurately and completely. In the present study, we use Next-Generation-Radar (NEXRAD) precipitation products, LiDAR tools, and multiple denudation-rate techniques to approach the magnitude and frequency of episodic events in different ways. Using NEXRAD precipitation products in conjunction with flow-routing algorithms, we were able to improve upon the traditional flood-envelope curves used to estimate the largest possible flood for a given basin area within a region. Improvements included adding frequency and uncertainty information to curves for the Upper and Lower Colorado River Basin, which in turn makes these curves more informative for flood hazard and policy applications. This study allowed us to improve upon a known flood-analysis method for identifying the distribution of the maximum floods with basin area. Both airborne and terrestrial LiDAR methods were used to measure the magnitude and time scale of the post-wildfire erosional response in two watersheds after the Las Conchas fire of 2011 in the Valles Caldera, NM. We found that sediment yield (measured by differencing LiDAR-derived DEMs) decreased exponentially with time in one watershed, while sediment yield in the other watershed decreased in a more complex way with time. Both watersheds had a recovery time (i.e. time interval over which sediment yields recovered to pre-wildfire levels) of one year. LiDAR was also used to understand the complex response of, and the processes on, the piedmonts adjacent to the watersheds. Overall, LiDAR proved to be extremely useful in measuring the magnitude and time scale of post-wildfire geomorphic response and observing the piedmont dynamics associated with elevated sediment yield. To understand the effects of wildfire on the long-term evolution of the landscape, techniques ranging from the relatively simple, traditional techniques (i.e. suspended-sediment-load sampling and paleosurface and modern surface differencing) to more complex and new techniques (i.e. ¹⁰Be and LiDAR) were used to measure the volumes and rates of denudation over multiple time scales in the Valles Caldera, NM. Long-term denudation rates were higher than short-term, non-wildfire-affected denudation rates, but lower than short-term, wildfire-affected denudation rates. Wildfire-affected denudation rates occurring at previously predicted frequencies (occurring<3% of the time interval) were found to account for the majority of long-term denudation, attesting to the importance of these episodic and extreme events in the evolution of the landscape.

Valles Caldera National Preserve (VCNP) managers were concerned about low elk recruitment observed at the same time as an apparent increase in sightings of coyotes and observations of coyote predation on elk calves. The goal of this study was to describe coyotes’ ecological interactions with elk, particularly coyote diet and movements on the Valle Grande, a large grassland meadow in the southeastern portion of the VCNP. We examined coyote diet by quantifying undigested remains of food items in coyote scats (feces). The most frequent taxa were rodents (montane voles and pocket gophers), elk (adult and calf), insects (grasshoppers and beetles), mountain cottontail rabbits, and plants. Most food types varied significantly seasonally and annually, likely due to climatic variation and the relative availability or vulnerability of food items. In particular, an increase in calf elk consumed during summer 2006 followed a dry winter when elk may have been in a lower nutritional state. We analyzed locations of 33 coyotes, obtained via global positioning system (GPS) collars and radio-tracking. We classified 23 coyotes as residents, living with a social group in a defined area (11.0 km2 mean), and 10 coyotes as transient, with less fidelity to specific areas and often travelling around the edges of the areas occupied by the four resident packs. Coyotes spent most of their time in dry meadow habitat. Coyotes spent more time in riparian habitat than expected based on its availability within home range and less time in forests. We found no relationship between coyote social cohesion (proximity of pack members to each other) and the proportion of elk in coyote diets. We concluded that coyote sociality on VCNP was relatively stable year-round despite changes in biological needs and prey size.

River-groundwater exchange (hyporheic exchange) influences temperature, water chemistry, and ecology within rivers and alluvial aquifers. Rates and patterns of hyporheic exchange depend on riverbed permeability, pressure gradients created by current-obstacle interactions, and river stage fluctuations. I demonstrate the response of hyporheic exchange to three examples of these driving forces: fine-scale permeability structure in cross-bedded sediment, current interactions with large woody debris (LWD), and anthropogenic river stage fluctuations downstream of dams. Using numerical simulations, I show that cross-bedded permeability structure increases hyporheic path lengths and modifies solute residence times in bedforms. The tails of residence time distributions conform to a power law in both cross-bedded and internally homogeneous riverbed sediment. Current-bedform interactions are responsible for the decade-scale tails, rather than permeability heterogeneity. Like bedforms, wood debris interacts with currents and drives hyporheic exchange. Laboratory flume experiments and numerical simulations demonstrate that the amplitude of the pressure wave (and thus hyporheic exchange) due to a channel-spanning log increases with channel Froude number and blockage ratio (log diameter : flow depth). Upstream from LWD, downwelling water transports the river’s diel thermal signal deep into the sediment. Downstream, upwelling water forms a wedge of buffered temperatures. Hyporheic exchange associated with LWD does not significantly impact diel surface water temperatures. I tested these fluid and heat flow relationships in a second-order stream in Valles Caldera National Preserve (NM). Log additions created alternating zones of upwelling and downwelling in a reach that was previously losing throughout. By clearing LWD from channels, humans have reduced hydrologic connectivity at the meter-scale and contributed to degradation of benthic and hyporheic habitats. Dams also significantly alter hydrologic connectivity in modern rivers. Continuous water table measurements show that 15 km downstream of the Longhorn dam (Austin, Texas), river stage fluctuations of almost 1 m induce a large, unsteady hyporheic exchange zone within the bank. Dam-induced hyporheic exchange may impact thermal and geochemical budgets for regulated rivers. Together, these three case studies broaden our understanding of complex drivers of hyporheic exchange in small, natural streams as well as large, regulated rivers. / text