<p>Smallholder farmers have been at the center of the development discourse not only because they represent a significant portion of the world's extreme poor but because of their potential role in food security, climate change and gender equality. Smallholders account for 70% of global food production but most of them in the developing world operate in the informal markets. Market formalization is accelerating even in the least developed countries, however, and formal market channels are gradually displacing informal ones. Global value chain based formal markets may also offer opportunities for smallholders to tap into fast growing international markets for high value agricultural products.</p><p> One of the key challenges policymakers, the development community and agribusinesses face, however, is smallholders' limited formal organization ("producer organizations") that aggregate their production and demand for goods and services in order to enable more effective market participation ("aggregation"). Only 5-10% of farmers globally are estimated to participate in formal producer organizations. This is despite the fact that such organizations have been supported by both policymakers and the development field as a way of tackling poverty and addressing market failures. </p><p>The shift towards food production being organized based on global value chains and production networks and the fast dissemination of supermarkets and other modern food retail outlets around the world is creating increased need for smallholders to partake in some form of aggregation mechanism in order to become contributors to the global food system.</p><p>Agribusinesses that buy agricultural products have therefore also been encouraging producer organizations as a way to improve their ability to source from smallholders. Nonetheless, of the producer organizations that do exist in emerging economies, only a negligible portion have been able to achieve stable access to the growing global market of high value agricultural products.</p><p>The objective of this dissertation is to contribute to the understanding of this paradox and to identify factors that may improve the likelihood and effectiveness of aggregation. The structure of this work is as follows: first the research problem and the gap in the literature (Chapter 1) will be defined, followed by the review of existing scholarship on smallholder agricultural producers, the globalization of agribusiness and global value chains as well as the literature on the aggregation of smallholder production, producer organizations and their access to global and modern value chains (Chapter 2). </p><p>Next a conceptual framework will be proposed based on which a model for smallholder global-value-chain-relevant aggregation (Chapter 3) will be developed that takes into account the producer organization types, the services offered by the producer organizations, producer organizations' access to financing and the requirements of global value chains. </p><p>The model will be tested first using the population of Hungarian producer organizations, and then a sample of Central American and Peruvian producer organizations (Chapter 4), utilizing the following hypotheses:</p><p>1. "Collective identity narratives", manifesting themselves in Collective Identity Activities, play an important role in facilitating the growth and competitiveness of POs.</p><p>2. Services, including access to financing for farmers, provided by POs play an important role in facilitating scaling.</p><p>3. Cooperatives are at a disadvantage compared to other producer organization (PO) forms in achieving the conditions of global value chain access.</p><p>The empirical analysis has five main findings. First, because trust is so important in enabling farmer participation in collectives, shared narratives that establish collective identity may play a role in ensuring not only farmer loyalty but also may help improve producer organizations' performance, particularly as organizations grow. Second, organizations that offer more services to farmers are more likely to scale and hence achieve global value chain access. However, this study found that considerable variation among services, some having much more significant relationship to the ability to scale than others. Third, cooperatives, the producer organization form most often supported by policymakers and the development field, on average were found less effective than other forms of producer organizations in their ability to connect farmers to global value chains. Having said that, it is important to highlight that the study also identified several cooperatives and some common patterns among them that outperformed both their cooperative and non-cooperative peers. Fourth, while this study adds to the evidence that smaller farmers within the smallholder group are at a disadvantage when it comes to PO participation and may, therefore, require differentiated support when it comes to interventions, it also identified several POs that work with some of the smallest farmers and still outperform their peers. Fifth, the study found that POs' access to financing is important for modern market access, in addition to meeting quantity and quality requirements.</p><p>The policy implications of these findings are considerable and recommendations for interventions conclude the paper (Chapter 6) after the discussion of this study's limitations (Chapter 5). The key policy findings include that cooperatives are not the panacea for development and policymakers should also consider other forms of producer organizations for support. Importantly, policymakers should rather consider linking their support to certain aggregator characteristics and activities, including services offered since some services appear to have stronger relationships than others with POs' ability to succeed. Among these services access to finance for farmers as well as research and development and innovation play crucial role and therefore deserve heightened attention from policymakers while access to finance at the PO level has also been found to be important. In addition, PO activities that help build collective identity are associated with POs' productivity and ability to scale.</p><p>In terms of the arguable trade-off between sustainability and smallholder inclusion, a finding of the present work is that smallholders have the potential to achieve significantly higher productivity than their larger counterparts and their POs can successfully access modern markets as long as they are provided with the necessary support related to sustainable intensification of their production and access to capital for making the necessary investments.</p> / Dissertation

Tanzania is one of the world’s poorest countries. But it has a lot to offer and in recent years both tourists and companies have realised this. This thesis focuses on the companies and takes a closer look at the growth performance and the inflow of Foreign Direct Investments (FDI) to Tanzania. By presenting a case on the cement industry in Tanzania the thesis also provide some insight in the mechanisms of FDI on a more practical level. The findings conclude that the FDI and growth have both increased extensively since the 1990’s, but I refrain from comments on the causality of this relationship. The economic reforms that the country underwent in the 1990’s are thought to have played a key role in the development of the country. From the case presented we draw the conclusion that a FDI can affect the value chain as well as the whole country in numerous ways.

The aim of this bachelor thesis was to investigate how local farmers of sunflower and local processors of sunflower oil in Babati, Tanzania perceive constraints and possibilities to value chain upgrading by conducting a case study. Open-ended interviews were conducted during a period of eight weeks with local sunflower farmers, local sunflower processors and other actors with knowledge of the sunflower value chain. The results from the study show that the main constraints perceived by farmers were lack of capital and incentive to buy new seeds, lack of knowledge of how to re-plant old seeds, their lack of bargaining position and market knowledge which together put restrains on their market access. The main constraints, perceived by local processors, were lack of access to credit, lack of market access with regard to sunflower cakes, a bi-product of sunflower oil production, and a shortage of sunflower seeds on the local market. With regard to the shortage of seeds produced in the area this was discussed further with the respondents as it seems to be connected with actors need for diversification as a form of risk aversion. The main upgrading options as perceived by farmers were value addition by also processing and selling the sunflower oil and different forms of horizontal integration. The main upgrading option perceived by local processors of sunflower oil was an insourcing of the labelling and packaging of sunflower oil which would create access to higher value markets.

Master of Agribusiness / Department of Agricultural Economics / Major Professor Not Listed / Different dry bean crop varieties with different colors are produced in Malawi. Yet, little is known about the drivers of consumer preferences for the different dry bean varieties grown based on color. Literature shows that consumers link bean color to taste, cooking time, gravy quality and other desirable characteristics. The main objective of this research was to assess factors that determine consumption of different types of dry beans in Malawi based on color to determine preferences for different consumer segments and hence the potential value of these preferences communicated across the dry bean supply chain, to enhance the probability of success for breeders’ efforts and the bean value chain’s initiatives. The research used survey data that was collected by the Bean Value Chain Research Network in Lilongwe District, Malawi. The sample size of the dataset was 687 households from three different economic strata. The research focused on four dry bean colors: Red, Red Mottled, White and Cream Mottled bean. These were found to be the most prominent colors by sales and stated preference in Malawi. Two econometric approaches were used in the data analysis. A bivariate analysis using Pearson’s chi-square was used to test the significance of the association between bean consumption (dependent variable) and household as well as product characteristics explanatory variables. A logit model was run on each of the four color types to assess the extent to which the explanatory variables influence consumer preferences for alternative colors of dry bean products. Results showed that 40.8% of the respondents consumed red beans, 12.6% consumed red mottled, 14.6% consumed White and 32% consumed Cream mottled beans. In terms of demographic characteristics, respondents’ marital and employment status as well as household size were found to have no significant influence the consumption of all the four colors. Being educated decreased probability of consuming white and cream mottled beans. Household characteristics were also found to influence preferences for color. For example, households in low and middle-income households were shown to have a lower likelihood of consuming white beans. The characteristics of the beans were also important in influencing preferences. For example, medium grain size beans influenced preference for red beans while fast cooking beans negatively affected the consumption of mottled red beans. The results provide insights for bean breeders in their attempts to contribute to increased producer incomes through a careful response to consumer preferences and not just producer demands for agronomic traits.

A competitividade tem sido tema recorrente no âmbito das empresas há muito tempo, mas tem um destaque maior à medida que os mercados abriram-se para um amplo comércio mundial. Antes discutido em nível de unidade, a competitividade não mais pode ser assegurada pelas competências e habilidades da empresa tão somente. A tônica atual no que se refere à competitividade considera o esforço de toda a cadeia de valor para atender às necessidades dos consumidores finais dos produtos e/ou serviços produzidos por esta. Alguns modelos foram desenvolvidos para atender às necessidades de mensuração de cadeias de valor, considerando os vários níveis dos indicadores, tanto a nível estratégico, quanto tático e operacional, mas lacunas ainda existem a serem preenchidas na busca de modelos mais completos. Neste sentido, este estudo desenvolveu uma estrutura de indicadores de desempenho para avaliar o desempenho de cadeias de valor, em específico a do setor moveleiro do oeste catarinense. Para tal se valeu de vários métodos de coleta de dados, como entrevistas, survey e método Delphi na busca de estruturar um conjunto de indicadores que pudessem avaliar o desempenho da cadeia de valor moveleira. O presente estudo se caracteriza com sendo um estudo exploratório, de cunho qualitativo e também um estudo de caso. Como resultados desta pesquisa, foram identificados na literatura os principais indicadores de desempenho utilizados para avaliar cadeias de valor, foram agrupados e analisados por especialistas quanto à sua importância para a mensuração de desempenho, posteriormente foram avaliados pelas empresas de dois polos moveleiros quanto à importância. Por fim, para a validação do modelo proposto, foi avaliado o desempenho de indicadores em duas empresas focais e os principais atores de suas cadeias de valor. / Competitiveness has been a recurrent theme in the companies field for a long time, but it has acquired a greater highlight as markets opened up to wide global trade. Previously discussed at the unit level, competitiveness can not be assured anymore only for the companies abilities and competence. The current key-note concerning competitiveness considers the effort of the whole value chain employed to attend the final consumer needs for its products and/or for its produced services. Some models were developed to attend value chains measuring needs, considering the several levels of indicators, both strategical as operational and tactical. However, there are still gaps to be fulfilled in the search for more complete models. In this sense, this study developed a structure of performance indicators to assess value chains performance, focusing specifically on the furniture field in the West region of Santa Catarina. To accomplish that, this study employed several methods of data collection, such as interviews, survey, and the Delphi Method, aiming at structuring a set of indicators that could assess the performance of the furniture field value chain. The current study is characterized as exploratory with a qualitative approach and also a case study. As results, the main performance indicators used to assess value chains were identified in the related literature. Next, they were grouped and analyzed by experts concerning their importance to performance measuring. Later, they were assessed by companies of two furniture areas in what concerns their importance. At last, in order to validate the proposed model, the performance of indicators was assessed in two focal companies, as well as the main actors of their value chains.

A competitividade tem sido tema recorrente no âmbito das empresas há muito tempo, mas tem um destaque maior à medida que os mercados abriram-se para um amplo comércio mundial. Antes discutido em nível de unidade, a competitividade não mais pode ser assegurada pelas competências e habilidades da empresa tão somente. A tônica atual no que se refere à competitividade considera o esforço de toda a cadeia de valor para atender às necessidades dos consumidores finais dos produtos e/ou serviços produzidos por esta. Alguns modelos foram desenvolvidos para atender às necessidades de mensuração de cadeias de valor, considerando os vários níveis dos indicadores, tanto a nível estratégico, quanto tático e operacional, mas lacunas ainda existem a serem preenchidas na busca de modelos mais completos. Neste sentido, este estudo desenvolveu uma estrutura de indicadores de desempenho para avaliar o desempenho de cadeias de valor, em específico a do setor moveleiro do oeste catarinense. Para tal se valeu de vários métodos de coleta de dados, como entrevistas, survey e método Delphi na busca de estruturar um conjunto de indicadores que pudessem avaliar o desempenho da cadeia de valor moveleira. O presente estudo se caracteriza com sendo um estudo exploratório, de cunho qualitativo e também um estudo de caso. Como resultados desta pesquisa, foram identificados na literatura os principais indicadores de desempenho utilizados para avaliar cadeias de valor, foram agrupados e analisados por especialistas quanto à sua importância para a mensuração de desempenho, posteriormente foram avaliados pelas empresas de dois polos moveleiros quanto à importância. Por fim, para a validação do modelo proposto, foi avaliado o desempenho de indicadores em duas empresas focais e os principais atores de suas cadeias de valor. / Competitiveness has been a recurrent theme in the companies field for a long time, but it has acquired a greater highlight as markets opened up to wide global trade. Previously discussed at the unit level, competitiveness can not be assured anymore only for the companies abilities and competence. The current key-note concerning competitiveness considers the effort of the whole value chain employed to attend the final consumer needs for its products and/or for its produced services. Some models were developed to attend value chains measuring needs, considering the several levels of indicators, both strategical as operational and tactical. However, there are still gaps to be fulfilled in the search for more complete models. In this sense, this study developed a structure of performance indicators to assess value chains performance, focusing specifically on the furniture field in the West region of Santa Catarina. To accomplish that, this study employed several methods of data collection, such as interviews, survey, and the Delphi Method, aiming at structuring a set of indicators that could assess the performance of the furniture field value chain. The current study is characterized as exploratory with a qualitative approach and also a case study. As results, the main performance indicators used to assess value chains were identified in the related literature. Next, they were grouped and analyzed by experts concerning their importance to performance measuring. Later, they were assessed by companies of two furniture areas in what concerns their importance. At last, in order to validate the proposed model, the performance of indicators was assessed in two focal companies, as well as the main actors of their value chains.

In the area of knowledge management and knowledge governance, previous research has mostly focused on either knowledge stocks or knowledge flows of firms or organizational units. Contrary to this work, our study is among the first to integrate these two perspectives in order to shed light on the complementarity effects of different types of knowledge stocks and flows in the multinational corporation (MNC). We investigate intra-functional as well as cross-functional complementarity effects from the perspective of the knowledge recipient. We test the impact of stocks on flows on the benefit that is created for MNC units. Based on a comprehensive sample of 324 relationships between MNC units we find that both types of complementarity create benefits for these units, but that the effects from intra-functional combinations of knowledge stocks and flows are significantly stronger than from cross-functional combinations.

A competitividade tem sido tema recorrente no âmbito das empresas há muito tempo, mas tem um destaque maior à medida que os mercados abriram-se para um amplo comércio mundial. Antes discutido em nível de unidade, a competitividade não mais pode ser assegurada pelas competências e habilidades da empresa tão somente. A tônica atual no que se refere à competitividade considera o esforço de toda a cadeia de valor para atender às necessidades dos consumidores finais dos produtos e/ou serviços produzidos por esta. Alguns modelos foram desenvolvidos para atender às necessidades de mensuração de cadeias de valor, considerando os vários níveis dos indicadores, tanto a nível estratégico, quanto tático e operacional, mas lacunas ainda existem a serem preenchidas na busca de modelos mais completos. Neste sentido, este estudo desenvolveu uma estrutura de indicadores de desempenho para avaliar o desempenho de cadeias de valor, em específico a do setor moveleiro do oeste catarinense. Para tal se valeu de vários métodos de coleta de dados, como entrevistas, survey e método Delphi na busca de estruturar um conjunto de indicadores que pudessem avaliar o desempenho da cadeia de valor moveleira. O presente estudo se caracteriza com sendo um estudo exploratório, de cunho qualitativo e também um estudo de caso. Como resultados desta pesquisa, foram identificados na literatura os principais indicadores de desempenho utilizados para avaliar cadeias de valor, foram agrupados e analisados por especialistas quanto à sua importância para a mensuração de desempenho, posteriormente foram avaliados pelas empresas de dois polos moveleiros quanto à importância. Por fim, para a validação do modelo proposto, foi avaliado o desempenho de indicadores em duas empresas focais e os principais atores de suas cadeias de valor. / Competitiveness has been a recurrent theme in the companies field for a long time, but it has acquired a greater highlight as markets opened up to wide global trade. Previously discussed at the unit level, competitiveness can not be assured anymore only for the companies abilities and competence. The current key-note concerning competitiveness considers the effort of the whole value chain employed to attend the final consumer needs for its products and/or for its produced services. Some models were developed to attend value chains measuring needs, considering the several levels of indicators, both strategical as operational and tactical. However, there are still gaps to be fulfilled in the search for more complete models. In this sense, this study developed a structure of performance indicators to assess value chains performance, focusing specifically on the furniture field in the West region of Santa Catarina. To accomplish that, this study employed several methods of data collection, such as interviews, survey, and the Delphi Method, aiming at structuring a set of indicators that could assess the performance of the furniture field value chain. The current study is characterized as exploratory with a qualitative approach and also a case study. As results, the main performance indicators used to assess value chains were identified in the related literature. Next, they were grouped and analyzed by experts concerning their importance to performance measuring. Later, they were assessed by companies of two furniture areas in what concerns their importance. At last, in order to validate the proposed model, the performance of indicators was assessed in two focal companies, as well as the main actors of their value chains.

This study investigates how the development of the agro-food processing industry could support the structural transformation of the Zambian economy. This is set against a backdrop of improved food systems coupled with increased demand for processed foods domestically and regionally, as well as income growth, urbanization, and regional integration. Developing the agro-processing sector will involve the building of dynamic industrial capabilities along with product certification and standards, packaging, logistics, and access to formal markets. Using the value chain of soya beans, the study explains how the development of such a value chain could support structural transformation. Findings suggest that there are numerous opportunities, currently underexploited, for processing soya beans into diversified products. Insights from the study reveal further opportunities to accumulate productive capabilities, both downstream and upstream to stimulate value-addition and export-led growth. Harnessing these opportunities will require specific policy support for soya beans particularly aimed at growing smallholder entry, upgrading agricultural efficiency, engaging government and non-state actors to build capacity to improve processing technologies, food testing, packaging, meeting standards and certification schemes, as well as harmonisation of regional standards.

Maize production remains low in Eswatini. The small country is still unable to meet the local demand through local production. Maize is Eswatini’s staple food but the country has not yet reached self-sufficiency. This deficiency or shortfall in local maize production has been a persistent problem since the country’s independence. To fight this shortfall and reach self-sufficiency, the National Maize Corporation (NMC) was formed in 1985. The main purpose of the NMC is to keep the local demand satisfied. The NMC, as the only importer of white maize into Eswatini, does this by importing the deficit demand from South Africa. Stability of the local white maize price is also one of the responsibilities of the NMC. This study’s overarching aim was to determine whether or not a significant relationship exists between the maize prices as quoted on SAFEX and the local maize price in Eswatini. This is done to see if the importer of maize in Eswatini, the NMC, can hedge the price risk on SAFEX. The study also maps the Eswatini imported and local maize value-chain through the current price discovery mechanism. Secondary data offered by the NMC and data from the Ministry of Agriculture in Eswatini and educational journals were used in the study. Econometric time series methods were used along with monthly data from 2008 to 2019. Two hypotheses were tested during the study. The first hypothesis tested for the existence of a significant relationship between maize prices as quoted on SAFEX and the local maize price in Eswatini. The second hypothesis follows the first, determining whether or not hedging on SAFEX could be used as a tool to minimise price risk on the domestic price market in Eswatini. The study confirms that a long-run relationship exists between the South African maize market and the Eswatini maize market. The study showed that a 1% increase in the South African price led to a 0.67% increase in the local Eswatini prices. This indicates a slow rate shift in prices. Short-run dynamics indicated a 12.5% adjustment to equilibrium per term, which is a slow adjustment as a result of market conditions in Eswatini. The study also revealed asymmetry in price transmission and that the Eswatini prices only respond to positive changes (price increase) in the South African prices. This reveals that the two markets are poorly integrated. Due to the significant relationship between the two markets, it can be acknowledged that SAFEX could be used to hedge price risk by Eswatini through the NMC. Through mapping down the maize value-chain, the study discovered that the Eswatini maize market is not a liberalised one and value addition to maize through the chain is minimal. The relationship between the two maize markets, as well as the maize market of Eswatini, could still improve if means to liberate the market were to be exercised by the NMC and local government. This study can serve as the basis for understanding how risk management tools could be used by the Eswatini maize market and how the market could be improved or liberalised. / Dissertation (MSc Agric (Agricultural Economics))--University of Pretoria, 2021. / African Research Consortium (AERC) / Collaborative Master of Science Programme in Agricultural and Applied Economics (CMAAE) / Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation / Agricultural Economics, Extension and Rural Development / MSc Agric (Agricultural Economics) / Unrestricted