Master of Science / Department of Agronomy / J. Anita Dille / Variable-rate (VR) nitrogen (N) applications have the potential to improve efficiency of grain sorghum production. Field experiments were conducted in 2010 and 2011 in Stockton and Manhattan, KS. Four VR-N prescriptions were generated using various combinations of grid soil sampling data, soil electrical conductivity (EC) data, and yield maps, and were compared in the field with a uniform application based on a composite soil sample and whole field average yield goal. Soil EC data were used to create management zones that were individually soil sampled. Prescriptions were applied before planting and grain sorghum was harvested and recorded with a yield monitor in the fall. Grain sorghum yields responded to N at both sites with a higher response in 2010 due to more precipitation during the growing season. At Stockton in both years, greatest yields and returns were realized with prescription 4, a combination of management zone soil data and spatially-variable yield goal, while the smallest yields were realized with prescription 2 based on management zone soil data and field average yield goal. Prescription 5, which used grid-soil sampling and a spatially-variable yield goal, and prescription 2 resulted in the lowest returns in both years. At Manhattan in both years, greatest yields and returns were realized with prescription 3, combining a composite soil sample with spatially-variable yield goal. Prescription 5 was among the lowest returning treatments in both years. At Stockton, there was no correlation between yield and soil EC during the 2010 growing season, however there was a significant correlation between yield and shallow EC during the drier 2011 season. At Manhattan, yield was correlated to deep EC in 2010 and to shallow EC in 2011. Overall, increasing spatial intensity of data to develop the prescriptions did not necessarily result in an increased yield response to the application. Prescriptions that included a variable yield goal component tended to perform better across both sites and years.

5 pp. / Precision herbicide application is an effective tool for placing soil incorporated herbicides which have a tendency for soil adherence. And while field implementation depends on previous knowledge of soil textural variability (soil test and texture evaluations), site-specific technologies show promise for Arizona vegetable producers in non-uniform soils. Regardless of the method used for textural characterization, growers should keep in mind that textural differences do not change in the short/medium term, so the costs associated with defining texture-based management zones can be spread over many years.

In digital watermarking, one embeds a watermark into a covertext, in such a way that the resulting watermarked signal is robust to a certain distortion caused by either standard data processing in a friendly environment or malicious attacks in an unfriendly environment. In addition to the robustness, there are two other conflicting requirements a good watermarking system should meet: one is referred as perceptual quality, that is, the distortion incurred to the original signal should be small; and the other is payload, the amount of information embedded (embedding rate) should be as high as possible. To a large extent, digital watermarking is a science and/or art aiming to design watermarking systems meeting these three conflicting requirements. As watermarked signals are highly desired to be compressed in real world applications, we have looked into the design and analysis of joint watermarking and compression (JWC) systems to achieve efficient tradeoffs among the embedding rate, compression rate, distortion and robustness. Using variable-rate scalar quantization, an optimum encoding and decoding scheme for JWC systems is designed and analyzed to maximize the robustness in the presence of additive Gaussian attacks under constraints on both compression distortion and composite rate. Simulation results show that in comparison with the previous work of designing JWC systems using fixed-rate scalar quantization, optimum JWC systems using variable-rate scalar quantization can achieve better performance in the distortion-to-noise ratio region of practical interest. Inspired by the good performance of JWC systems, we then investigate its applications in image compression. We look into the design of a joint image compression and blind watermarking system to maximize the compression rate-distortion performance while maintaining baseline JPEG decoder compatibility and satisfying the additional constraints imposed by watermarking. Two watermarking embedding schemes, odd-even watermarking (OEW) and zero-nonzero watermarking (ZNW), have been proposed for the robustness to a class of standard JPEG recompression attacks. To maximize the compression performance, two corresponding alternating algorithms have been developed to jointly optimize run-length coding, Huffman coding and quantization table selection subject to the additional constraints imposed by OEW and ZNW respectively. Both of two algorithms have been demonstrated to have better compression performance than the DQW and DEW algorithms developed in the recent literature. Compared with OEW scheme, the ZNW embedding method sacrifices some payload but earns more robustness against other types of attacks. In particular, the zero-nonzero watermarking scheme can survive a class of valumetric distortion attacks including additive noise, amplitude changes and recompression for everyday usage.

In digital watermarking, one embeds a watermark into a covertext, in such a way that the resulting watermarked signal is robust to a certain distortion caused by either standard data processing in a friendly environment or malicious attacks in an unfriendly environment. In addition to the robustness, there are two other conflicting requirements a good watermarking system should meet: one is referred as perceptual quality, that is, the distortion incurred to the original signal should be small; and the other is payload, the amount of information embedded (embedding rate) should be as high as possible. To a large extent, digital watermarking is a science and/or art aiming to design watermarking systems meeting these three conflicting requirements. As watermarked signals are highly desired to be compressed in real world applications, we have looked into the design and analysis of joint watermarking and compression (JWC) systems to achieve efficient tradeoffs among the embedding rate, compression rate, distortion and robustness. Using variable-rate scalar quantization, an optimum encoding and decoding scheme for JWC systems is designed and analyzed to maximize the robustness in the presence of additive Gaussian attacks under constraints on both compression distortion and composite rate. Simulation results show that in comparison with the previous work of designing JWC systems using fixed-rate scalar quantization, optimum JWC systems using variable-rate scalar quantization can achieve better performance in the distortion-to-noise ratio region of practical interest. Inspired by the good performance of JWC systems, we then investigate its applications in image compression. We look into the design of a joint image compression and blind watermarking system to maximize the compression rate-distortion performance while maintaining baseline JPEG decoder compatibility and satisfying the additional constraints imposed by watermarking. Two watermarking embedding schemes, odd-even watermarking (OEW) and zero-nonzero watermarking (ZNW), have been proposed for the robustness to a class of standard JPEG recompression attacks. To maximize the compression performance, two corresponding alternating algorithms have been developed to jointly optimize run-length coding, Huffman coding and quantization table selection subject to the additional constraints imposed by OEW and ZNW respectively. Both of two algorithms have been demonstrated to have better compression performance than the DQW and DEW algorithms developed in the recent literature. Compared with OEW scheme, the ZNW embedding method sacrifices some payload but earns more robustness against other types of attacks. In particular, the zero-nonzero watermarking scheme can survive a class of valumetric distortion attacks including additive noise, amplitude changes and recompression for everyday usage.

Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) and corn (Zea mays L.) spectral reflectance holds promise for deriving variable rate N (VRN) treatments calibrated with red-edge inflection (REI) type vegetation indices (VIs). The objectives of this study were to define the relationships between two commercially available sensors and the suitable VIs used to predict N status. Field trials were conducted during the 2012-2013 growing seasons using fixed and variable N rates in cotton ranging from 33.6-134.4 kg N ha-1 and fixed N rates in corn ranging from 0.0 to 268.8 kg N ha-1. Leaf N concentration, SPAD chlorophyll and crop yield were analyzed for their relation to fertilizer N treatment. Sensor effects were significant and red-edge VIs most strongly correlated to N status. A theoretical ENDVI index was derived from the research dataset as an improvement and alternative to the Guyot’s Red Edge Inflection and Simplified Canopy Chlorophyll Content Index (SI).

Single-rate blanket application of fertilizer nitrogen (N) can result in an over or under application. Variable rate (VR) applications tailored to actual crop demands can improve N use efficiency in spatially variable soils. The objective of this study was to compare and improve relationships derived between corn canopy reflectance and corn N status acquired with two sensing platforms. Four fertilizer N rates were used, from deficient to excess, to create varying corn N status. Sensing and biophysical sampling was taken throughout the season for analysis and comparison to calculated vegetation indices (VIs). Results show strong relationships between VIs and corn N concentration and the strongest found using combined indices that incorporate the red-edge wavelength (720 nm). Relationships strengthened at latter growth stages. Results and models from this study demonstrate the utility of using remote sensing technologies to more accurately predict corn N status for eventual use in VR prescription development.

Spectral reflectance-based, remote sensing technology has been used to adjust in-season nitrogen (N) fertilizer rates for wheat to account for spatial variability in grain yield potential at a sub-meter resolution. The objective of this study was to examine the relationships among spectral reflectance indices, corn tissue N content, chlorophyll measurements, plant size and spacing measurements, and grain yield to develop a similar strategy for variable-rate N management in corn. Irrigated and non-irrigated studies were conducted during the 2002 and 2003 growing seasons in eastern Virginia. Plots were treated with various rates of preplant, starter, and sidedress N fertilizer to establish a wide range of grain yield potential. Spectral measurements, tissue N, chlorophyll measurements, and plant physical measurements were collected at growth stages V6, V8, and V10. At maturity, grain yield was determined and correlated with in-season data and optimum N rate to calibrate in-season, variable-rate N fertilization strategies. Results from these studies indicate that spectral reflectance is well correlated with plant N uptake and chlorophyll meter readings and can also be correlated with final grain yield. These relationships may be used to develop a model to predict in-season, variable N application rates for corn production at a sub-meter resolution. / Master of Science

Background. Hardware-accelerated ray tracing has enabled ray traced reflections for real-time applications such as games. However, the number of rays traced each frame must be kept low to achieve expected frame rates. Therefore, techniques such as rendering the reflections at quarter resolution are used to limit the number of rays traced each frame. The new hardware features inline ray tracing, and hardware variable rate shading (VRS) could be combined to limit the rays even further. Objectives. The first goal is to use hardware VRS to limit the number of rays even further than rendering the reflections at quarter resolution, while maintaining the visual quality in the final rendered image. The second goal is to determine if inline ray tracing provides better performance than using ray generation shaders. Methods. Experiments are performed on a ray traced reflections pipeline using different techniques to generate rays. The techniques use inline ray tracing, inline ray tracing combined with VRS, and ray generation shaders. These are compared and evaluated using performance tests and the image evaluator \FLIP. Results. The results show that limiting the number of rays with hardware VRS result in a performance increase. The difference in visual quality between using inline ray tracing with VRS and previous techniques remain comparable. The performance tests show that inline ray tracing performs worse than ray generation shaders with increased scene complexity. Conclusions. The conclusion is that hardware VRS can be used to limit the number of rays and achieve better performance while visual quality remain comparable to previous techniques. Inline ray tracing does not perform better than ray generation shaders for workloads similar to ray traced reflections. / Bakgrund. Hårdvaruaccelererad strålspårning har möjliggjort strålspårade reflektioner för realtidsapplikationer såsom spel. Däremot måste antalet strålar som spåras hållas lågt för att förväntade bildfrekvenser ska uppnås. Därför används renderings-tekniker som att rendera reflektioner i en fjärdedels upplösning för att begränsa mängden strålar. De nya teknikerna inline strålspårning och hårdvarubaserad variable rate shading (VRS) kan användas för att minska antalet strålar ytterliggare. Syfte. Det första målet är att använda hårdvarubaserad VRS för att minska antalet strålar ytterligare jämfört med att rendera reflektioner i en fjärdedels upplösning, men samtidigt upprätthålla den visuella kvalitén. Det andra målet är att avgöra om inline strålspårning ger bättre prestanda än att använda strålgenererings shaders för reflektioner. Metod. För att svara på forskningsfrågorna ufördes experiment på en strålspårad reflektionspipeline med olika tekniker för att generera strålar. Teknikerna som testas är inline strålspårning, inline strålspårning kombinerat med VRS, samt strålgenererings shaders. Dessa jämförs och evalueras med prestandatester och bild-evaulatorn \FLIP. Resultat. Resultaten visar att minska mängden strålar med hårdvarubaserad VRS resulterar i en prestandaökning. Skillnaden i visuell kvalité mellan inline strålspårning kombinerat med VRS och tidigare tekniker är jämförbara. Prestandatesterna visar att inline strålspårning presterar värre än strålgenererings shaders vid ökad scenkomplexitet. Slutsatser. Slutsatsen är att hårdvarubaserad VRS kan användas för att minska antalet strålar och resultera i bättre prestanda, medan den visuella kvalitén är jämförbar med tidigare tekniker. Inline strålspårning ger inte bättre prestanda än strålgenererings shaders vid strålspårade reflektioner och liknande arbetsbelastning.

Bakgrund. Kostnaden att ljussätta en pixel blir dyrare med realistiska spel. Upplösningen av spel är ökas i samma tak för att visa upp detaljerna. Att rendera en blidruta för användare blir därför allt dyrare. Dynamic Resolution Rendering är ett sätt att enhetligt minska upplösningen för att öka prestandan fast med den nyligen släppta variable rate shading finns det nya sätt att öka prestandan men med mindre påverkan på bildkvalitén.Syfte. Målet är att se om adaptiv ljussätningsning via Variable Rate Shading kan tillåta liknande eller bättre resultat, med hänsyn på prestanda och bildkvalité, jämfört med den enhetliga ljussättningen av Dynamic Resolution Rendering. Metod. Denna undersökning kommer att utföras genom att implementera Variable Rate Shading och Dynamic Resolution Rendering i en Deferred Renderer. Prestandan kommer att mätas genom att ta tid för ljussättningspasset och bildkvalitén kommer att mätas genom att jämföra den slutgiltiga bildrutan av båda teknikerna mot den ursprunliga upplösningen via SSIM. Resultat. Övergripande visade Variable Rate Shading jämförelsebar prestanda när den applicerades på Deferred Lighting passet fast hade bildkvalité som liknande mer den originalupplösningen. Slutsatser. Variable Rate Shading visade sig vara jämförbar i prestandan som i jämförelse med dynamic resolution rendering, fast gav bättre möjlighet att bibehålla bildkvalitén. / Background. The shading cost of a pixel is only getting more expensive with more realistic games. Resolution of games is equally pushed to display the all the details in a scene. This causes rendering a frame to be very expensive. Dynamic Resolution Rendering has been used to uniformly decreases resolution to gain performance but with the new release of image-based shading through Variable Rate Shading could be the new way to gain performance with less impact on image quality. Objectives. The goal is to see if the adaptive shading possibilities of Variable Rate Shading can show equal or better results, in regards to performance and image quality, compared to the uniform shading of Dynamic Resolution Rendering. Methods. This investigation is performed by implementing them into the Deferred Lighting pass in a Deferred Renderer. The performance is measured by the render pass time of the Deferred Lighting and the image quality is measured by comparing the final frames of Variable Rate Shading and Dynamic Resolution Rendering against the original resolution through SSIM. Results. Overall Variable Rate Shading show comparable performance results to Dynamic Resolution Rendering but the image quality is closer to the original resolution. Conclusions. Using image-based shading on the deferred lighting pass allow the possibility of extracting similar performance gains as dynamic resolution rendering but allows maintaining higher image quality.

Background. Performance optimization is of great importance for games as it constrains the possibilities of content or complexity of systems. Modern games support high resolution rendering but higher resolutions require more pixels to be computed and solutions are needed to reduce this workload. Currently used methods include uniformly lowering the shading rates across the whole screen to reduce the amount of pixels needing computation. Variable Rate Shading is a new hardware supported technique with several functionality tiers. Tier 1 is similar to previous methods in that it lowers the shading rate for the whole screen. Tier 2 supports screen space image shading. With tier 2 screen space image shading, various different shading rates can be set across the screen which gives developers the choice of where and when to set specific shading rates. Objectives. The aim of this thesis is to examine how close Variable Rate Shading tier 2 screen space shading can come to the performance gains of Variable Rate Shading tier 1 while trying to maintain an acceptable image quality with the help of commonly used post processing effects. Methods. A lightweight scene is set up and Variable Rate Shading tier 2 methods are set to an acceptable image quality as baseline. Evaluation of performance is done by measuring the times of specific passes required by and affected by Variable Rate Shading. Image quality is measured by capturing sequences of images with no Variable Rate Shading on as reference, then with Variable Rate Shading tier 1 and several methods with tier 2 to be compared with Structural Similarity Index. Results. Highest measured performance gains from tier 2 was 28.0%. The result came from using edge detection to create the shading rate image in 3840x2160 resolution. This translates to 36.7% of the performance gains of tier 1 but with better image quality with SSIM values of 0.960 against tier 1’s 0.802, which corresponds to good and poor image quality respectively. Conclusions. Variable Rate Shading tier 2 shows great potential in increasing performance while maintaining image quality, especially with edge detection. Postprocessing effects are effective at maintaining a good image quality. Performance gains also scale well as they increase with higher resolutions. / Bakgrund. Prestandaoptimering är väldigt viktigt för spel eftersom det kan begränsa möjligheterna av innehåll eller komplexitet av system. Moderna spel stödjer rendering för höga upplösningar men höga upplösningar kräver beräkningar för mera pixlar och lösningar behövs för att minska arbetsbördan. Metoder som för närvarande används omfattar bland annat enhetlig sänkning av skuggningsförhållande över hela skärmen för att minska antalet pixlar som behöver beräkningar. Variable Rate Shading är en ny hårdvarustödd teknik med flera funktionalitetsnivåer. Nivå 1 är likt tidigare metoder eftersom skuggningsförhållandet enhetligt sänks över hela skärmen. Nivå 2 stödjer skärmrymdsbildskuggning. Med skärmrymdsbildskuggning kan skuggningsförhållanden varieras utspritt över skärmen vilket ger utvecklare valmöjligheter att bestämma var och när specifika skuggningsförhållanden ska sättas. Syfte. Syftet med examensarbetet är att undersöka hur nära Variable Rate Shading nivå 2 skärmrymdsbildskuggning kan komma prestandavinsterna av Variable Rate Shading nivå 1 samtidigt som bildkvaliteten behålls acceptabel med hjälp av vanligt använda efterbearbetningseffekter. Metod. En simpel scen skapades och metoder för Variable Rate Shading nivå 2 sattes till en acceptabel bildkvalitet som utgångspunkt. Utvärdering av prestanda gjordes genom att mäta tiderna för specifika pass som behövdes för och påverkades av Variable Rate Shading. Bildkvalitet mättes genom att spara bildsekvenser utan Variable Rate Shading på som referensbilder, sedan med Variable Rate Shading nivå 1 och flera metoder med nivå 2 för att jämföras med Structural Similarity Index. Resultat. Högsta uppmätta prestandavinsten från nivå 2 var 28.0%. Resultatet kom ifrån kantdetektering för skapandet av skuggningsförhållandebilden, med upplösningen 3840x2160. Det motsvarar 36.7% av prestandavinsten för nivå 1 men med mycket bättre bildkvalitet med SSIM-värde på 0.960 gentemot 0.802 för nivå 1, vilka motsvarar bra och dålig bildkvalitet. Slutsatser. Variable Rate Shading nivå 2 visar stor potential i prestandavinster med bibehållen bildkvalitet, speciellt med kantdetektering. Efterbearbetningseffekter är effektiva på att upprätthålla en bra bildkvalitet. Prestandavinster skalar även bra då de ökar vid högre upplösningar.